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La Revue de l’Institut | The Graduate Institute Review #16 Automne | Autumn 2015
GLOBE
DOSSIER
L’histoire
en mouvement
L A MAISON DE L A PAIX
Entretien avec
Christian Dussey
Directeur du GCSP
La Revue de l’Institut | The Graduate Institute Review #16 Automne | Autumn 2015
ÉDITORIAL
03 Une priorité : des femmes professeurs – Philippe Burrin
L’INSTITUT
04 Dual Master Programme with Harvard Kennedy School
LA MAISON DE LA PAIX
06 Entretien avec l’ambassadeur Christian Dussey, directeur du Centre
de politique de sécurité de Genève (GCSP)
DOSSIER – L’histoire en mouvement
10 L’histoire en mouvement – Davide Rodogno
12 Transnational Africa – Aidan Russell
14 Penser l’histoire transnationale – Mohammad-Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou
16 Birth Control in the Twentieth Century: Transnational Movements and Local
Contexts – Nicole Bourbonnais
18 The History of International Governance and Systems – Jussi M. Hanhimäki
20 Entanglements and Connections: Towards a Global History of the Cooperative
Movement, 1890–1970 – Interview with Gareth Austin and Nikolay Kamenov
22 Why Study International History at the Graduate Institute?
LES ENSEIGNANTS
24 Nouveaux professeurs
LES DÉPARTS
27 Bruno Arcidiacono et Nicolas Michel
LES ÉTUDIANTS
29 La diversité linguistique est une richesse
30 A Letter of Motivation: Why I Want to Study at the Graduate Institute
31 Reflections on Our Experience at the Institute
L’ENSEIGNEMENT
32 Teaching at the Graduate Institute: Challenges and Rewards – Shalini
Randeria
LA RECHERCHE
34 New Research Projects
36 The Inclusive Peace and Transition Initiative (IPTI)
Editeur : Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement 37 Nouvelles thèses : thèses soutenues du 1er janvier au 30 juin 2015
CP 136 – CH-1211 Genève 21 | Tél. : +41 22 908 57 00 | graduateinstitute.ch 38 Nouvelles parutions
Responsable d’édition : Sophie Fleury, sophie.fleury @ graduateinstitute.ch
Crédits photographiques : LES ALUMNI
Couverture : Tram passing in front of the Museum of the Assassination of Franz
42 Chapitre de Washington : le témoignage de Paul Mathieu
Ferdinand, on the spot where, on 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip assassinated
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, an act which led to the outbreak of the First World 43 Portrait – Sheela Bhide
War, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. AFP/Manuel COHEN.
Gérald SCIBOZ (pp. 2, 24, 34, 37). Le bâtiment de la Harvard Kennedy School IN MEMORIAM
à Cambridge, Massachusetts (p. 4). GCSP/Antoine TARDY (p. 6). IHEID (p. 10). 44 Vera Gowlland-Debbas
Jean-David CURCHOD (pp. 22, 29, 32, 33, 35). Alessandro MONSUTTI
(Quartier de Alamdar Road/Marriabad, à Quetta, Pakistan, p. 30).
Amaury PEETERS (p. 38).
Impression : Juillerat Chervet
© The Graduate Institute, Geneva, October 2015 | ISSN : 1662-8497
2
ÉDITORIAL
Une priorité :
des femmes professeurs
Philippe Burrin
Directeur de l’Institut
A u cours des deux dernières décennies, le monde
universitaire dans l’espace atlantique s’est féminisé.
L’Institut n’a pas échappé à cette tendance qui a touché
Avec l’augmentation du nombre de doctorantes,
l’ajustement devrait se faire au fil du temps. Mais plutôt
que de s’en remettre à un changement lent et incertain,
fortement les sciences sociales. Aujourd’hui, deux tiers l’Institut a décidé de suivre une politique volontaire
de nos étudiants de master et un peu plus de comprenant deux volets : d’une part, la mise au concours
la moitié des doctorants sont des femmes. d’un nombre accru de postes au rang de professeur assis-
Mais parmi les professeurs, leur nombre tant afin de donner à des femmes des chances sérieuses
dépasse à peine 20 %. Le déséquilibre de de l’emporter dans une compétition ouverte ; d’autre part,
genre entre étudiants et professeurs est donc l’utilisation de la procédure par appel pour inviter des
allé croissant. femmes possédant un dossier et une expérience de haut
niveau à nous rejoindre au rang de professeur ordinaire.
Il serait simpliste d’attribuer ce regrettable
état de fait à la prévalence de préjugés En jouant simultanément sur ces deux éléments, nous
machistes, dont le milieu universitaire est avons obtenu des premiers résultats positifs. Sur les treize
plutôt exempt. En tout cas, rien n’en montre la personnes nommées cette année et qui entreront en fonc-
présence à l’Institut, où la dimension genre est intégrée tion d’ici l’automne prochain, neuf sont des femmes. En
dans les enseignements et où la recherche sur les ques- persévérant dans cette voie, nous remédierons à une
tions de genre est valorisée, notamment grâce au travail faiblesse qui nuit au développement durable de l’Institut.
de l’équipe du programme dirigé par le professeur En rééquilibrant les genres parmi les professeurs, nous
Elisabeth Prügl. offrirons des role models à tout le monde, y compris aux
hommes, et ferons bénéficier notre vie collective d’une
Une explication plus sérieuse est à chercher dans la plus grande variété d’aptitudes et de sensibilités.
faible proportion – jusqu’à récemment – des femmes
parmi les doctorants dans notre domaine de spécialisation,
ce qui se reflète lors des procédures de recrutement.
Quand un poste est ouvert au niveau de professeur ordi-
naire, le pourcentage des candidates tourne autour d’un
tiers, ce qui ne favorise guère une issue heureuse. Pour un
poste au rang de professeur assistant, en revanche, la
proportion atteint près de la moitié. La conséquence en
est qu’aujourd’hui 43 % des personnes à ce rang sont des
femmes.
3
L’INSTITUT
Dual Master Programme
with Harvard Kennedy School What are the benefits of your experience at the Institute
and in International Geneva?
Interview with Ashveena Gajeelee Ashveena Gajeelee. My year at the Institute was very Airene Robinson. Given that the Institute is in
Head of International Cooperation and External Relations, Financial Services Commission, Republic of Mauritius enriching, both academically and professionally. It allowed Geneva – the hub for international negotiations and the
and Airene M. Robinson me to be in tune with the latest developments in the fields seat of the United Nations – it provides a very conducive
Project Manager, Department of Finance, Republic of the Philippines of trade law, health regulation and science. What I particu- environment for international relations students. I’ve
larly enjoyed in Geneva was the ease with which students benefitted from the excellent conferences, debates, talks
can interact with the international community and thought and networking opportunities that the Graduate Institute
leaders who are based in or visiting Geneva. In addition, provides through its strategic location and connections
The Dual Master Programme is aimed at a few selected mid-career professionals who are the Institute hosts international events just about every to international organisations. I have also benefitted from
interested in public service and foreign and global affairs, and have at least seven years week, giving students the opportunity to listen to and the Institute’s excellent international relations and law
of professional experience. Ashveena Gajeelee and Airene Robinson are both holders of the benefit from the thoughts of political leaders and experts. professors, not only in terms of academic backing but
Pierre Keller Scholarships. Another non-negligible factor is the highly diverse student also as concerns professional experience.
community at the Institute. The constant exchange and
clash of ideas with my classmates during my year was defi-
nitely one of the highlights.
Why did you decide to apply for this dual degree
programme? If you had to convince students to apply for this programme,
Ashveena Gajeelee. The dual master programme of Airene Robinson. Going back to academic learning and what would be your arguments?
the Graduate Institute and Harvard University brings obtaining a master’s degree had been a long-desired under- Ashveena Gajeelee. I would tell them that they Airene Robinson. My arguments would be the
together two premier foreign policy and governmental or taking for me. After working professionally for both the should not even think twice about it. The Institute offers following: the programme is offered by two specialised
corporate strategy institutions. It was a once in a lifetime private and the government sector for more than 15 years, the latest technology and study support; and the skills academic institutions that are known to provide academic
opportunity for me to further my skills in order to best it seemed that the time to undertake a master’s degree had acquired at the Institute and the professional networking excellence in the fields of public administration – Harvard
address the global challenges all policymakers face, irre- finally come, the only question being what master’s degree opportunities are a great combination to use as a platform Kennedy School – and international relations – Graduate
spective of where we live. The effi- should I obtain that would be a good for those who want to become agents of change. Institute of International and Development Studies; it is
cient application of concepts relies match for what I had already The dual master programme is a tough programme, aimed at and designed for working professionals whose
on the amalgamation of analytical achieved professionally. The dual there’s no doubt about it. Both institutions – the Graduate objective it is to pay forward or give back to humanity or
thinking and problem solving; and I degree programme came to me at Institute and Harvard University – have very high stand- the public by significantly contributing to sustainable
felt that the best way to learn this the perfect time, when I was ready ards. The professors are of international stature and have development and the improvement of social, environmen-
was through intera ction with to take on another endeavour in high expectations of their students. They can push you tal and human conditions; and it prepares mid-career
professionals from a multidiscipli- academic learning to complement, if out of your comfort zone at times. But, as Abraham professionals to take on leadership roles, not just mana-
nary background. not hone, my technical, practical Lincoln wrote to his son, it’s the test of fire that makes gerial roles, developing leaders who create solutions that
and professional knowledge and fine steel! have an impact nationally, regionally and globally.
experiences.
> graduateinstitute.ch/dualmaster
4 5
LA MAISON DE LA PAIX
Entretien avec l’ambassadeur
Christian Dussey
Directeur du Centre de politique de sécurité de Genève (GCSP)
Le GCSP est un centre de formation dédié demande, comme cela a déjà été le cas à Addis Abeba, Quels sont les défis qui attendent le GCSP ? and Policy-Making » afin de réactiver l’importance du lien
aux questions de sécurité internationale. Amman, Bakou, Dakar, New York ou encore Sarajevo. Le premier défi est de rester pertinent. Le marché de entre l’étude de l’histoire et l’élaboration des politiques.
Pourriez-vous nous donner un exemple L’un de nos cours les plus globaux est le « New Issues l’éducation et de la formation est très concurrentiel et Je me réjouis de continuer et d’approfondir cette collabo-
concret qui illustre vos activités ? in Security Course », qui se déroule sur deux mois. Il met nous nous efforçons de toujours offrir un produit unique ration dans un futur proche.
Le GCSP est ancré dans une approche interactive l’accent sur les nouvelles menaces non traditionnelles pour et de qualité. Il nous tient particulièrement à cœur de four-
insistant sur la jonction entre l’expérience et l’expertise. la sécurité internationale et traite de questions d’actualité nir à nos participants des connaissances et des compé- Quel est le profil des personnes qui
Notre marque de fabrique est la cocréation, qui allie l’ex- telles que le terrorisme, le crime organisé, le changement tences concrètes, qu’ils pourront mettre en œuvre dans travaillent au GCSP ?
pertise des universitaires, l’expérience des praticiens et climatique, la migration, la démographie et la sécurité leur travail au quotidien au sein de gouvernements, d’or- La diversité du personnel du GCSP est une de nos
l’expérience personnelle et collec- alimentaire et sanitaire, sans oublier les développements ganisations internationales, d’organisations non gouver- spécificités. Nous comptons 48 collaboratrices et collabo-
tive de nos participants. C’est ce au Moyen-Orient, en Afrique et en Asie. nementales et du secteur privé. rateurs de 24 nationalités différentes. Par ailleurs, nous
partage qui fait la renommée de Un autre de nos cours à succès est « Crisis Decision pouvons également compter sur nos membres associés
nos formations et leur donne leur Making : Navigating through the Storm », qui a pour but de Comment collaborez-vous avec l’Institut faisant partie de notre « Global Fellowship Initiative », ainsi
côté novateur. renforcer les connaissances et les compétences des parti- dans la Maison de la paix ? que sur notre vaste réseau global d’experts et d’anciens
Le GCSP dispense plus de 40 cipants en matière de leadership et de prise de décision en Le GCSP travaille avec tous les acteurs présents dans participants aux profils très variés. Parmi eux, des diplo-
cours par année pour des partici- situation de crise. Pendant ce cours d’une semaine qui la Maison de la paix, et plus particulièrement avec l’Insti- mates, des militaires, des chercheurs, des journalistes et
pants de plus de 120 pays. La durée s’adresse à des cadres dirigeants, nous fournissons à nos tut. Notre directeur adjoint, M. Mohammad-Mahmoud des représentants d’organisations non gouvernementales
de ces formations est adaptée à la participants les outils nécessaires afin de comprendre, Ould Mohamedou, est aussi professeur associé à l’Institut et du secteur privé. Cette combinaison est l’une des
demande et peut ainsi aller d’un d’analyser et de gérer les principaux défis pour les et nous accueillons régulièrement des experts de l’Institut richesses du GCSP.
M. l’ambassadeur
jour, pour des thèmes très spéci- approches stratégiques, opérationnelles et tactiques. dans le cadre de nos différentes activités. Certains
Christian Dussey. fiques, à huit mois, pour un master Pour compléter ses formations, le GCSP mène des étudiants de l’Institut sont sélectionnés pour effectuer un > www.gcsp.ch
en sécurité internationale et euro- recherches sur des sujets pointus en matière de sécurité stage chez nous afin de gagner de l’expérience pratique
péenne. Nos formations ont lieu pour la plupart à Genève internationale et constitue une plateforme de dialogue au dans le domaine des relations internationales. Enfin, à la
ou en Suisse mais peuvent également s’exporter selon la sein de la Genève internationale. mi-mai, nous avons lancé l’initiative commune « History
6 7
DOSSIER
L’HISTOIRE EN
MOUVEMENT
Demonstrators gather at Puerta del
Sol during the “March for Change”
planned by left-wing party “Podemos”
that emerged out of the “Indignants”
movement, in Madrid. 31 January
2015. AFP/Pedro ARMESTRE
rejoints au cours de cette année organisations internationales, les étudiés par nos prédécesseurs ont été
académique par Amalia Ribi Forclaz et ONG, la diplomatie ou encore les oubliés. Plus simplement, l’historien vit
Carolyn Biltoft. Le dicton Pour que administrations publiques ; certains une tension constante entre le présent
tout reste comme avant, il faut que tout sont devenus journalistes et beau- où tout est en mouvement et le passé
change (tiré du Guépard de Tommasi coup d’autres sont engagés dans le où ce mouvement peut être – partiel-
di Lampedusa) s’appliquerait-il à la secteur privé. C’est d’ailleurs pour lement – reconstruit.
mutation en cours du département cette raison que le département vient La discipline n’est pas figée ; les
d’histoire internationale ? Ce change- de lancer un séminaire de recherche changements sont bien réels, mais tout
ment obéit à un double but : d’un appliquée professionnalisant. D’un n’a pas changé… pour que rien ne
côté, nous voulons que les études
d’histoire internationale servent
professionnellement à tous nos
étudiants, et pas seulement aux « L’historien vit une
futurs historiens. Nous sommes
convaincus que l’histoire est une tension constante entre
discipline essentielle aux études du
développement et aux affaires inter- le présent où tout est
nationales. Pour comprendre la crise
économique ou celle de l’euro, les en mouvement et le passé
tragédies des réfugiés et des migrants
(médiatisées et oubliées), les conflits, où ce mouvement peut
les mouvements transnationaux ou la
gouvernance internationale, faire être – partiellement –
l’impasse sur l’histoire internationale
serait comme priver le chimiste d’un reconstruit. »
élément fondamental pour une réac-
L’HISTOIRE tion, une synthèse ou une composi-
tion. L’étude de l’histoire entraîne
l’esprit critique, la flexibilité intellec-
autre côté, ces changements
répondent à un besoin intrinsèque et
change. Les contributions de mes
collègues montrent la beauté et la vita-
EN MOUVEMENT tuelle, la capacité de mettre en pers-
pective le temps et l’espace ; elle
permet d’identifier continuités et
existentiel. Comme nos prédécesseurs,
nous écrivons l’histoire avec notre
regard pointé sur « notre » présent et
lité de notre discipline, l’espace qu’elle
laisse à la créativité de chacun et,
surtout, la raison d’être de l’histoire
Davide Rodogno ruptures. La contextualisation, un des nous sommes aussi sensibles qu’eux internationale au sein de notre Institut.
Professeur et responsable du département d’histoire internationale piliers de l’analyse historique, est un au poids du passé récent et du passé Celle-ci est loin d’être moribonde, pas
atout dans n’importe quel environne- vécu, et tout aussi intrigués et curieux plus qu’elle n’est en quête de révolu-
ment professionnel. Preuve en est qu’eux par ce qui arrivera demain. Il tions de façade. La rigueur méthodolo-
que les étudiants qui ont obtenu un serait naïf et présomptueux de croire gique, la passion pour l’exégèse,
master en histoire internationale de que nous avons inventé une meilleure l’aventure des sources, l’importance
C e dossier de Globe illustre les
trois axes principaux de l’histoire
internationale à l’Institut : l’histoire de
s’intéressent aux réfugiés et aux
migrants, le(s) mouvement(s) à l’inté-
rieur du continent africain sont d’une
Bourbonnais évoque l’importance du
contexte local dans « Birth Control in
the Twentieth Century : Transnational
l’Institut exercent aujourd’hui des
fonctions très variées dans les
manière de faire l’histoire. Il serait tout
aussi erroné de penser que les thèmes
du détail, de contextualiser, de racon-
ter, restent les mêmes.
la gouvernance mondiale et des portée bien plus vaste. Russell Movements and Local Contexts »,
systèmes internationaux, l’histoire des expose la nature transnationale où l’histoire culturelle et sociale vient
acteurs et des mouvements transnatio- du projet qui mit fin aux empires colo- enrichir la perspec tive trans-
naux et l’histoire des cultures, des niaux et montre comment une pers- nationale. Enfin, les remarques de
sociétés et des marchés dans une pec tive de longue durée fait Jussi Hanhimäki dans « The History of Marc Flandreau, Professor of International History, and Gabriel Geisler Mesevage, PhD student
perspective régionale et/ou globale. apparaître le lien étroit entre les International Governance and of International History, have won the 2014 Best Article Prize in Enterprise and Society
Loin de s’exclure mutuellement, ces communautés séd entarisées, une Systems » rappellent la nécessité
axes se juxtaposent et s’imbriquent, autorité gouvernementale stable et d’analyses concrètes et corroborées The Untold History of Transparency: Mercantile Agencies, shows, however, this story was developed by lawyers
que ce soit dans l’enseignement, dans une grande mobilité. Son texte par des preuves empiriques. the Law, and the Lawyers (1851–1916), winner of the employed by rating agencies. Examination of court
les séminaires ou dans les publications rejoint la réflexion de Mohammad- Depuis 2008, l’histoire internatio- 2014 Best Article Prize in Enterprise and Society, cases and the litigation archive of one such firm
des historiens. Ils permettent à l’his- Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou. Dans nale a fait peau neuve à l’Institut. provides a revisionist take on the rise of rating. The uncovered a world where agencies bullied plaintiffs,
toire de dialoguer avec toutes les disci- « Penser l’histoire transnationale », Elle est enseignée par des profes- conventional view is that early rating agencies, which suborned witnesses and colluded among themselves
plines de l’Institut. ce dernier explique que la transnatio- seurs de renommée internationale were established in the mid-19th century, emerged due to ensure that litigation remained minimised. The
Dans « Transnational Africa », nalité se décline autour de la connec- comme Marc Flandreau et Gareth to a cultural shift that made publicly discussing a origins of the ratings business is found in a series of
Aidan Russell se penche sur la ques- tivité des acteurs, de l’interc ontex- Austin, et par de jeunes et talentueux merchant’s credit acceptable – something that would often underhanded techniques, the real story behind
tion du mouvement en Afrique. Il tualisation des récits et de la trans- profess eurs comme Aidan Russell have been sanctioned by tribunals. As the article the rise of transparency.
souligne que si les médias européens cendance des frontières. Nicole et Nicole Bourbonnais, qui seront
10 11
L’HISTOIRE EN MOUVEMENT
TRANSNATIONAL
AFRICA
Aidan Russell
Assistant Professor of International History
T he modern world is one of
movement. In Africa we see it all
in remarkable contrast. Western
find their “roots” in this history of
integration.
Still, the oral traditions of many of
displacement. Even the forced mobility
of the international slave trade could
be the foundation of fixed authority and
professionals fly in from Geneva and Africa’s great kingdoms, cultures and settled community.
elsewhere as expats, Europe obsesses empires recall heroic rulers who came Of course, every question of state,
over crises of migrants from across out of the wilderness and pioneering community and mobility was shaped
the Mediterranean, South Africa settlers who brought life to barren by the experience of colonial rule.
suffers xenophobic riots targeted at lands. New communities and complex During their own great migration across
immigrants, and media images dwell state authorities were built out of the world, European powers attempted
on the suffering of refugees. movement. But even the most power- to establish themselves in Africa, partly
The image is easily mistaken. The ful kingdoms could exercise only by controlling African mobility. Borders
few people who attempt to cross the limited control over their people. If were drawn to define fixed territories
Mediterranean are vastly outnumbered they imposed themselves too much, and claim authority over those within
by those who move within Africa. Most or provided too little, their subjects them. The violence of conquest and
stay settled within their national bor- could simply leave, move on and start control pushed many to move away.
ders. But does transnational movement the cycle of mobility again. But while colonial authorities needed
threaten the stability of authority, the
cohesion of national communities or
the reality of state borders? The history
of Africa suggests that the relationship
between “rooted” stability and “root-
“Transnational NORTHERN NIGER, territory, but settling populations also provide a home for all within them. In into exile, reproducing the dynamics
less” movement is by no means a one-
way street.
migration and national Agadez: West African
migrants returning
meant fuelling mobility.
The end of empire was, in turn, a
the eyes of the postcolonial world, the
refugee emerged as the archetypal
of forced mobility around them. Like
their legendary forebears, such refu-
settlement are passing
from Libya sit with
Across the precolonial millennia, their belongings. transnational project. Anti-colonial transnational actor, transgressing gee rulers prove again that mobility
new states and political systems rose 30 May 2015. movements linked up across the con- boundaries and caught between does not move in one direction.
and fell with the movement of people.
The African continent supported a rela
actions, not identities.” AFP/ Issouf SANOGO tinent, smuggling ideas and people
between them. Mobility became truly
nations. The cycle of mobility and
settlement turns onwards; in recent
Transnational migration and
national settlement are passing
tively thin population and there was transnational, as state, community decades these refugees have taken actions, not identities. People who
always another place to go. Outcasts, and territory were combined in the their place among the most dynamic take such transnational actions con-
refugees, pioneers and adventurers There has been no more graphic settled people, colonial economies language of the nation. It was often and effective state-builders on the tinue to transform the nations they
set out to seek a new home on the illustration of the ambiguous link needed mobility. Great effort was the most mobile of African subjects, continent. “Diasporic states” have been transgress, even as they contribute
frontier. Sometimes they found others between mobility and power than the devoted to developing migrant labour those who had been able to study in built in Rwanda and Eritrea by return- to their political, social and economic
to take them in, develop a new way of Atlantic and Indian Ocean slave trades. systems that could “keep Africans in Europe, America or elsewhere, who ing refugees who have brought with development. Africa’s long history
life with their support, imagination and Around the greatest forced migration their place” by limiting the mobility of gave expression to this revolution. them knowledge, experience and shows that settled community, stable
labour. Complex political ties were in history new states built themselves women and children while encourag- Transnationalism drove the imagina- resources from across the world. Yet authority and great mobility are mutu-
developed to manage power relation- to supply or defend against slavers, ing the seasonal mobility of working tion of the nation. their actions, from Rwanda’s interven- ally entwined. One does not threaten
ships between first-comers and later while colonies of freed or escaped slaves men towards mines, pastures and plan- However, civil war soon showed tions in Congo to Eritrea’s internal sys- the other, but shapes it.
migrants. Many communities today modelled new patterns of society from tations. State power was defined by that some new nations would not tems of control, have sent many more
12 13
L’HISTOIRE EN MOUVEMENT
PENSER L’HISTOIRE
TRANSNATIONALE PAYS-BAS.
Commerçants et
médias sociaux, toutes ces dimensions
se prêtent de plus en plus à une étude
contemporain des soulèvements de
par le monde, de l’« Occupy Wall
transnationales sont plus qualitati
vement pénétrées, et donc transfor-
hommes d’affaires
Mohammad-Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou circulant à cheval. qui à l’avenir devra reconstituer des Street » américain aux « Indignados » mées en retour. Enfin, la direction du
Professeur associé d’histoire internationale ; Chromolithographie communications et contre-communica- espagnols en passant par le « Maïdan » monde – Nord-Sud, Occident-Orient –
directeur adjoint du Centre de politique de sécurité de Genève (GCSP) de la fin du XIXe siècle tions virtuelles, fluides et contingentes. ukrainien et le « Balai citoyen » burki- se doublera d’une représentation
Collection privée Dire l’histoire transnationale, c’est nabé. A quoi peut ressembler un post-Mercator multidirectionnelle où
© ISADORA/
LEEMAGE donc aborder des nouvelles catégories agenda intellectuel mis à jour en ce l’audience est continuellement élargie
d’analyse qui permettent de faire sens sens ? Premièrement, la notion et nul acteur ne se prévaut d’une
L ’étude de l’histoire constitue-
t-elle une discipline dont les
contours demeurent invariables ou
voyageurs, entrepreneurs et autres
commerçants ne se dénotent pas par
cet aspect grammatical prononcé de
comprendre le présent afin d’expliquer
le passé.
L’émergence de l’Etat-nation avait
de la fragmentation du monde et sa
reconstitution sur d’autres versants.
de trajectoires devra nous aider à
cartographier la déterritorialisation
influence permanente.
Si le terme est encore par trop
imprécis et une théorie générale du
peut-elle se prêter à des mises à jour ? ce qui se joue depuis la fin du donné naissance à une approche de transnationalisme fait encore défaut
Comment établir le bien-fondé de XXe siècle, à savoir un repositionne- l’histoire qui s’était naturellement aux sciences sociales, le transnatio-
celles-ci et s’assurer que leur aspect ment de l’histoire sur un échiquier centrée sur les interactions entre Etats nalisme n’est toutefois pas le cosmo-
empirique vienne enrichir la discipline ?
Au cours des dernières décennies, la
global de spatialités en coalescence.
L’accent est désormais cumula
et les développements en leur sein ;
puis l’histoire comparative prenait
« Si, à la faveur de la politisme. C’est, autrement, une
codification systémique d’une histoire
question de l’histoire transnationale
est apparue avec acuité. Le développe-
tivement mis sur trois aspects :
la connectivité grandissante des
ancrage dans ces mêmes dichotomies.
Désormais, les Etats eux-mêmes parti-
mondialisation, l’aspect émergente de la dispersion qui ne se
déploie plus de façon unidirection-
ment de ce tropisme concerne princi-
palement l’étude de la mobilité et du
acteurs, l’intercontextualisation des
récits et la transcendance des fron-
cipent de ce transnationalisme en
manifestant toujours plus en avant
transnational de l’histoire nelle et où les différences et simili-
tudes n’existent plus sous formes
déplacement des acteurs, des idées,
des mouvements sociaux et des
tières. La transnationalité se décline
donc spécifiquement autour de cet axe
l’extraterritorialité militaire, financière
et juridique. L’histoire se déploie de nos
a indéniablement pris une cloisonnées, interagissant minimale-
ment. Forcerait-on le trait ? La disci-
organisations, ainsi que des individus
eux-mêmes qui sont de plus en plus
fertile entre lien et évanescence. Et
c’est toute la difficulté de construire
jours en mettant en scène des ordres
étatiques et sociaux qui sont influen-
ampleur grandissante, pline classique de l’histoire aura-t-elle
péché par une association excessive
transnationalisés.
Si, à la faveur de la mondialisa-
des méthodes d’analyse de ce qui, de
par sa nature, échappe à la fixité.
cés in situ à la lumière immédiate d’al-
térités lointaines, là où cette influence
il est important de noter avec l’Etat-nation ? Doublement non,
et l’histoire transnationale ferait assu-
tion, l’aspect transnational de l’histoire
a indéniablement pris une ampleur
Aussi, le défi qui se pose aujourd’hui
est celui de l’étoffement scientifique
était précédemment différée ou impo-
sée par un narratif préalablement mûri
que cette approche existe rément faux pas si elle cherchait à
marquer des ruptures narratives de
grandissante, il est important de noter
que cette approche existe depuis
d’une approche qui, jusqu’à peu,
faisait plus sens intuitivement que
ailleurs. Aujourd’hui, les patterns de
migration, la santé, l’économie, la
depuis longtemps. » posture et à remplacer ou corriger
l’étude classique de l’histoire. Il
longtemps. On ne saurait, en effet, cliniquement et qui doit maintenant conflictualité, la technologie, les s’agira plutôt d’ajouter une contribu-
établir une simple symétrie entre nous aider à comprendre la redéfinition réseaux sociaux, l’environnement, les tion suivant laquelle la concentration
histoire contemporaine et transnatio- des espaces et des identités. Si Ibn diasporas, le terrorisme nouveau, la préalablement enserrée sur la conti-
nalisme sans perdre de vue les dimen- Khaldoun, Arnold Toynbee et Fernand société civile internationale, les méga- Là où le « Printemps des peuples » de de l’Etat-nation dans un contexte guïté d’un Etat ou d’un territoire
sions qui se sont manifestées à travers Braudel s’inscrivaient déjà en ce sens, villes, l’ordre et le désordre, la notion 1848 demeurait confiné à une partie plus large. Deuxièmement, la pourra aussi traiter la dimension
les périodes antérieures. Pour autant, l’historien du futur devra néanmoins d’empire, la diplomatie elle-même de l’Europe, le « Printemps arabe » notion d’ hybridité accompagnera transnationale en tant qu’influence
les époques précédentes et leurs regarder un peu plus l’avenir pour menée activement sur le front des de 2011 a inspiré par mimétisme celle d’échanges. Les interactions potentielle.
14 15
L’HISTOIRE EN MOUVEMENT
BIRTH CONTROL
IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:
TRANSNATIONAL MOVEMENTS
AND LOCAL CONTEXTS
Nicole Bourbonnais
Assistant Professor of International History
I n 1878, Dutch physician Dr Aletta
Jacobs opened what is widely
recognised as the world’s first birth
however, made relatively expensive
“modern” methods like the diaphragm
more widely accessible. They also
1950s. Local organisations also began
to create more formal links through
groups like the International Planned
control clinic. Operating out of a small moved birth control from private Parenthood Federation, which by
office in Amsterdam, Jacobs offered homes and community networks into 1961 had some 32 members in four
fittings of the diaphragm method for a medical setting, under the control of regions.
free to poor women, along with a new wave of professional doctors, Some advocates also moved
maternal and infant health services. nurses and social workers. across borders to pursue the cause.
By 1930, similar clinics had opened in These birth control advocates Recent histories have explored the
some 30 countries around the world. were self-consciously transnational international work of American advo-
The concept of birth control was from the outset, exchanging informa- cates like Margaret Sanger, who trav-
not new, of course. Nearly all soci tion, pamphlets and advice from one elled widely, holding public lectures
eties in history have sought to control corner of the globe to the other. and helping set up local clinics. But UNITED STATES, New While these efforts spread access International Conference on Population times the very same foreign grant or
activists from the “Global South” also York City: Margaret to birth control more widely than ever and Development, held in Cairo in state programme could be used in
Sanger and Lillian
travelled North, and across the South, Fassett on way to before, controversy soon erupted. 1994. The conference’s programme of one town to push experimental IUDs
sharing experience and expertise. Court to attend the A number of programmes were found action led to a paradigm shift towards on women and in another to create
“Understanding the history Jamaican doctor J. L. Varma, for exam-
ple, visited birth control clinics in India
Sanger trial.
30 January 1917.
to have promoted highly unethical
and coercive practices, such as test-
“reproductive rights”, including the
right to safe, accessible and affordable
voluntary sex education centres
requested by local parents. Whether
of birth control in any and London in the late 1930s, and
India’s Lady Rama Rau became well-
THE ART ARCHIVE /
Culver Picture ing experimental methods without
patients’ knowledge, pushing women
methods of family planning, but also
the right to have children (through
any individual campaign was coercive
or empowering could thus be deter-
particular location thus known on the international family
planning circuit in the 1950s.
to use certain contraceptives despite
safety concerns, or making state bene-
rights to maternal healthcare), and the
right to make decisions about repro-
mined at several levels, influenced by
the agendas and ideologies not only
requires awareness of The international push of the
movement would be transformed in
fits contingent on birth control use.
Critics argued that the narrow focus on
duction free of coercion and violence.
Today, reproductive rights have
of international donors and state offi-
cials, but also of the nurses and social
the international context the 1960s, as concerns over rapid
population growth in decolonising
reducing fertility rates (rather than
empowering women) was to blame.
become a widely recognised inter
national norm.
workers who did the day-to-day work
of birth control campaigns, and even,
and the transnational nature countries led to an increased push for
birth control within state and foreign
Ultimately, it would take another
transnational movement – this time,
Understanding the history of birth
control in any particular location thus
at times, by patients themselves. We
should thus be cautious about giving
of these movements.” aid policy. The small, private clinics of
earlier decades were dwarfed in
against population control – to shift
the international agenda. Transnational
requires awareness of the inter
national context and the transna-
too much weight to official paradigm
shifts in the international community
many countries by massive state non-governmental organisations like tional nature of these movements. or the changing language of state
“population control” programmes, the International Women’s Health And yet, this cannot come at the programmes. Just as “population
reproduction, whether by late Copies of international publications supplying new methods such as the Coalition and DAWN (Development expense of attention to the local control” aid could fund a wide range
marriage practices, prolonged breast- like the Birth Control Review, for ex- pill, IUD, Depo-Provera and Norplant Alternatives with Women for a New context. Indeed, combining research of practices, the “reproductive rights”
feeding, homemade barrier methods ample, could be found in clinics from with financial support from donors Era), for example, played a critical in the archives of international and agenda will also, ultimately, find its
or induced abortions. The new clinics, Jamaica to Japan in the 1940s and like the United Nations and USAID. role in lobbying for change at the local organisations suggests that at meaning on the ground.
16 17failed to provide a broadly accepted extreme volatility in many parts of the the international system and the fact
international governance system. Part world to which the UN was poorly that – despite the utopian and larger-
of the reason was simple: the League, equipped to respond. Nor did the than-life rhetoric that characterises its
despite having a sizeable Latin disappearance of the Cold War drama- Charter – the UN has never been a
American contingency, remained an tically transform the organisation’s – unitary actor but rather held hostage
organisation dominated by European judged by many in the twenty-first to both its own institutional imperfec-
imperial powers (France and Great century to reflect a bygone age – tions as well as the many diverging
Britain) that were wedded to the ability to meet its original goals. Lest it goals and interests that its member
preservation of their international is to undergo a process of substantive states embody.1
subsystems (the colonial empires). To
be sure, the global economic crisis,
the rise of totalitarianism and the
absence of the United States from the
League further eroded the League’s “Nothing lasts forever;
L’HISTOIRE EN MOUVEMENT
capabilities.
The creators of the League’s systems and modes
successor organisation, the United
of governance are in
THE HISTORY Nations (UN), were supposed to learn
from the mistakes of their predeces-
sors. The very preamble of the UN constant flux, new
OF INTERNATIONAL Charter made this clear, proclaiming
that the UN was “to save succeeding actors emerge while old
generations from the scourge of war
ones fade away.”
GOVERNANCE which twice in our lifetime has
brought untold sorrow to mankind.”
While the League had failed to
AND SYSTEMS provide what United States President
Woodrow Wilson once thought would
be “a definite guaranty of peace”, the
reform, the UN is, history seems to
advise us, ripe for retirement. Perhaps
Therein lies, perhaps, the most
important reason why studying the
Jussi M. Hanhimäki UN’s member states – by learning the real lesson of attempts to create history of the idea and practice of
Professor of International History past lessons and implementing them functioning international governance international (or global) governance
into its structure and modus operandi systems is that no such system is (not just the UN) is particularly rele-
– were “to practice tolerance and live possible? vant in today’s rapidly changing and
together in peace with one another as Historians, however, are reluctant inherently complex international
good neighbours.” to accept such a simplistic negative enviro nment. For while theorising
President Woodrow
Wilson announcing
to Congress the entry
T he histor y of international
governance and systems is a
field littered with examples of how
more than a few generations. Indeed,
if we learn anything from history it is
the simple fact that nothing lasts
attempt – emerged in the immediate
aftermath of World War I. It was a
response to the cataclysmic collapse
A noble dream that, 70 years later,
remains unrealised? That, certainly, is
one possible interpretation of the post-
judgment. For one, they point to
the remarkable if often forgotten
successes of the UN. It has not been
about what works and what does
not is undoubtedly important, while
designing “templates” or “models”
of the United States
into World War I. the weight of history influences the forever; systems and modes of gover- of the Eurocentric international 1945 effort to create a successful able to eradicate conflict but has provi- about the roles of “stakeholders” can
Illustration in Le Petit shape of the present. On the one nance are in constant flux, new actors system that had been in place since international governance system. Until ded the means to alleviate its effects provide useful guidelines, there is no
Journal, France. hand, this chequered story shows the emerge while old ones fade away. the end of the Napoleonic Wars of the the late 1980s the Cold War placed substitute for the concrete analysis of
(e.g. by helping refugees) and call
April 1917.
THE ART ARCHIVE/ efforts of nation states and other Just take the now almost cen- early nineteenth century. Yet, while strict limits on international coopera- attention to some of its causes (from empirical evidence. And, ultimately,
Private Collection/CCI actors to create something approa- tury-old effort to create an internatio- the League had some early successes tion. Together with the rapid decoloni- economic inequality to cultural misun- all such evidence – whether related
ching a stable international order. On nal organisation that would be able to in conflict resolution (by settling sation of European empires, the Cold derstanding). For another, historians to security, development or human
the other hand, history reminds us regulate the actions of nation states border disputes in the Balkans and War conspired to create conditions of emphasise the inherent complexity of rights – is historical.
that such efforts – and the internatio- in order to minimise the likelihood of northern Europe) and in humanitarian
nal “systems” that emerged as a violent conflict. The Geneva-based fields (helping refugees and combat- 1
Editor’s note: The reader wishing to learn more about the UN’s successes and failures may consult Professor Hanhimäki’s book The United Nations: A Very Short
consequence – have rarely lasted League of Nations – the first such ting the slave trade), it ultimately Introduction (see p. 39).
18
19L’HISTOIRE EN MOUVEMENT
ENTANGLEMENTS AND
CONNECTIONS: TOWARDS
A GLOBAL HISTORY
OF THE COOPERATIVE
MOVEMENT, 1890–1970
Interview with Gareth Austin
Professor of International History
and Nikolay Kamenov
Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of International History
H ow did different forms of coope-
rative economic entities come
into being around the world? What
the International Cooperative Alliance
(1895) and the Horace Plunkett
Foundation (1919) helped the exchange
European context, and scarcely from
a global perspective. A history of cir-
culation – rather than the diffusion
were the particular articulations of of knowledge between regions. So, and spread – of ideas and knowledge
the global cooperative movement and the late nineteenth and the twentieth concerning the establishment and run-
how did they inform cooperative centuries saw the establishment and ning of cooperatives bridging different
experiments on the ground? The growth of cooperative credit societies regions worldwide remains to be
project “Coop Entanglements and and banks, cooperative production in written.
Connections: Towards a Global the agrarian sector and consumer The project takes a single, global UNITED KINGDOM, success fed back to a global circuit of involved in the development of the the cooperative movements
History of the Cooperative Movement, cooperatives worldwide. Colonial and analytical plane, and shows an entan- Rochdale: An cooperative knowledge exchange and locales as early as 1920. The analysis in Ghana and India. Why
old-fashioned
1890–1970“, funded by the Swiss postcolonial governments and non- gled history of economy and knowl- co-op advert,
promotion. of such partly South-South, partly colo- did you choose these two
National Science Foundation (SNSF) governmental organisations promoted edge transfer that spanned networks at the Rochdale nial connections would be a long- specific cases studies?
for three years and led by Professor and supported such entities in many beyond the conventional metro- Pioneers Museum Studying the history of the awaited and much-needed contribution Against the background of the
Gareth Austin with the collaboration countries, including, for example, pole-periphery axis. The study takes in Rochdale which circulation of ideas is not to the field of global history, with its expansion and growth of global mar-
is said to be where
of Nikolay Kamenov (PhD, E TH Ghana and India. Knowhow was a further innovative approach in com- the cooperative simple. defining emphasis on entangled con- ket economy, these case studies will
Zurich), examines the global circula- exchanged between countries in a bining the analysis of such circulation movement was Yes, you’re right. We decided to nections and comparisons across world help us recover some of the epistemic
tion of ideas and knowledge broad cooperative epistemic network, with an examination of commodity founded. concentrate on a phase that bridges regions. Apart from the academic merit networks and commodity chains in
15 May 2015.
concerned with the establishment while cooperatives on the ground were chains in which various cooperative NURPHOTO/
the colonial and postcolonial periods. in the recovery and analysis of such and through which cooperatives have
and running of cooperative bodies. also part of commodity chains that structures have been involved. Jonathan It focuses on two seemingly distinct connections, however, the study will appeared throughout the world. Apart
spanned the globe. NICHOLSON cases, one usually associated with also contribute to a broader understand- from being stages on which coopera-
What are the roots of This project has three cocoa-producing cooperatives and one ing of the historic implications of coop- tives were established, Ghana and
the cooperative movement? What is the originality of the concrete objectives. Could associated with postindependence five- eratives worldwide and illuminate what India were also major laboratories of
The Rochdale pioneers set an early scientific and social context you describe them for us? year plan initiatives, and draws atten- may be seen as the dialectical relation- cooperative experimentation and thus
example of consumer cooperative of the project? The project aims, first, to expose tion to similarities and differences. Thus, ship between cooperatives and the sites in which knowledge was pro-
(1844), while later in the nineteenth Despite the pivotal importance of some diffusionist fallacies, portraying not only were both movements initiated growth of the global market economy. duced and fed back into broader impe-
century Friedrich Raiffeisen created the cooperative movement in processes colonies and the “Third World” as sim- by the British colonial administration, rial, postcolonial and global frame-
the first rural credit cooperatives. of social and political transformation ply the receiving side in the interna- but also knowhow and information were The proposed research works of exchange.
Borrowing from various sources, dif- worldwide – some 200 million people tional cooperative movement; second, exchanged between agricultural experts includes two case studies:
ferent cooperative models were also are employed in cooperatives today to examine the social and economic
established from the 1890s onwards and many more are members or use particularities of the cooperative
in many independent countries and cooperative services daily – its history movement in these regions; and, third, This project will be developed over three years at the Graduate Institute with inputs from three partners: the Humboldt
colonies, while organisations such as has been studied overwhelmingly in a to show how experiments, failure and University of Berlin, the University of Delhi and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETH Zurich).
20 21JONATHAN MATTHEW SCHMITT (United States of America)
PhD Candidate in International History
A s an American historian working
on a critical history of the United
States, it may at first seem
The department provides students
with the opportunity and the tools to
approach their studies in more com-
and collegial (a combination one rarely
finds). The students here take schol-
arship very seriously and those that I
strange that I chose to do plex and innovative ways than do many have had the pleasure to get to know
my PhD at the Graduate other graduate history programmes are not only working on fascinating
Institute in Geneva. My around the world. At the Institute, and relevant topics, they are also
work, however, focuses on students are immediately encouraged genuinely committed to the historical
L’HISTOIRE EN MOUVEMENT US history embedded in to engage particular historical ques- discipline. In my experience, the
an international context tions, as always part of a larger field Department of International History
WHY STUDY that is only legible with ref-
erence to the larger world
of which it was and is a
of questions, and never to isolate the
history of a single culture, society or
nation from the broader, global histor-
at the Graduate Institute is among the
vanguard of contemporary historical
studies and I count myself very fortu-
INTERNATIONAL HISTORY part. The Department of
International History at the Graduate
Institute is the ideal to place to pursue
ical current.
The department’s faculty is unpar-
alleled and the intellectual environ-
nate to be a part of it.
AT THE GRADUATE a project like this. ment they foster is both challenging
INSTITUTE?
EFRAT GILAD (Israel)
Master Candidate in International History
ADITYA KIRAN KAKATI (India)
PhD Candidate and Teaching Assistant in International History
W hat I value most about the
Graduate Institute is the diver-
ago, I was living in Tel Aviv, graduating
cum laude, holding a research assistant
Today, I am inspired and energised and
feel that I have found a home from
I nternational History is a field that
was entirely new for me when I joined
the Graduate Institute four years ago
provides and I decided to continue to
study here in order to avail myself of
this opportunity. This interdisciplinary
capacity. We perhaps combine the right
balance between pedagogical
instruction and pursuing our own
sity of students and faculty members.
There is no better way to challenge your
own premises than in a seminar – or
position, and was well on my way to a
PhD. Still, I felt limited. I was in need
of a major challenge, a completely new
which I can pursue my academic goals.
I am again on my way to a PhD, but the
one I always wanted to write, not the
as an MA student. I have exposure has allowed me to reflect more research. The faculty members, apart a brainstorming session perspective in order to deconstruct one I thought I should write.
continued to study here as strongly on my own work as well as on from being highly distinguished in their over coffee – with a group narratives that were confining me as Finally, the Institute’s location in
I have continually found the the discipline of history. My professors own fields, also possess diverse and of open-minded peers who a historian and as a person. Due to its the heart of international Geneva is
space to explore novel have been greatly supportive of my interesting personality traits. Our come from different coun- diversity, the Institute is not confined ideal. Not only does this promote diver-
openings and have received pursuit of multidisciplinary themes engagement with them is also personal tries and speak different to any narrative and a critical reflection sity, but the abundance of international
great direction and support. during my PhD in order to allow my and having greater access to them languages. This stimulating is almost built directly into this insti- organisations and archives within reach
Now in the second year perspectives to grow and curiosities to provides us with an environment that environment is exactly tution. For me, this is priceless. are imperative for a well-grounded,
of my PhD, I have been able be sparked further. Additionally, the extends beyond just academic guidance. what I desired when I At the Graduate Institute I found globally conscious historian.
to pursue a minor in right guidance has been provided to Our small and closely knit community, applied to the Institute. faculty members who know you by
anthropology and sociology channel this exposure productively. the highly international landscape of While I cherish the name and encourage you to follow your
of development that has I have also been involved in the students and our relationships provide years I spent at Tel Aviv passion. The International History pro-
greatly expanded the intellectual department as a teaching assistant; this an ideal milieu in which to broaden our University, the past year at the gramme is rigorous and the professors
landscape I am exposed to. This is a experience has significantly nurtured spectrum of thought, history and Graduate Institute has challenged me are demanding, but they are also very
unique opportunity that the Institute my intellectual and pedagogical everything else in between. more than ever before. Just one year generous with their time and advice.
22 23Vous pouvez aussi lire
