A Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia1
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Received: 11/02/2021
Accepted: 26/04/2021
doi: 10.17533/udea.mut.v14n2a15
ISSN 2011-799X
A Quantitative Exploration to Directionality
Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters
in Colombia1
Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina
juanf.zuluaga@udea.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8751-4992
Universidad de Antioquia, Colombia
Antonio Tamayo Herrera
antonio.tamayo@udea.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5984-7463
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México / Universidad de Antioquia, Colombia
Abstract
The high influence of sworn translators and interpreters (sti, henceforth) on the professional context
of translation in Colombia is undeniable. However, the lack of institutional support and the poor
documentation and research that exist among stis in the country makes it difficult to read it in an
informed, comprehensive, and historical manner. Considering the abovementioned, this article aims
at presenting the results of a sociological case study from a quantitative research that reflects, in a
diagnostic or preliminary way, on the current situation of the Colombian stis, their status, and their
working conditions. This study used techniques mainly from inferential statistics on data collected
from a survey conducted to 200 informants. In this paper, special emphasis is placed on the results
related to directionality and its influence in the market behavior. In general, there was a large plurality
in the informants’ profiles even though it was found that more than half of them were women and
that English remained the main working language among translators with a particular strong pres-
ence of reverse translation/interpretation (towards a language other than Spanish). Likewise, through
this research, it was concluded that several understudied professional and market-related aspects cru-
cial for reading and understanding the work done by translators and interpreters in Colombia more
judiciously were identified, described, and problematized.
Keywords: sworn translation and interpretation; directionality; translation market; translation in Co-
lombia.
1 This article is an outcome of the research project “A Neo-institutionalist Study from the Sociology of the
Professions to the Current Situation of Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia” financed by the
codi (Committee for the Development of Research) from Universidad de Antioquia. It was approved by
means of Act n° 2019-25530 from November 14, 2019. This article is also the result of some reflections
taken from a M. A. dissertation entitled “Situación actual de los traductores e intérpretes oficiales en Colombia: una mi-
rada desde la sociología de las profesiones” [The Current Status of Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia:
A Sociology of the Professions Approach] carried out by the first author with the help of Gabriel Quiroz as
his main advisor. It can be accessed in http://bibliotecadigital.udea.edu.co/handle/10495/16727
Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
Exploración cuantitativa sobre la direccionalidad entre traductores
e intérpretes oficiales en Colombia
602
Resumen
La gran influencia de los traductores e intérpretes oficiales en el contexto profesional de la traducción
en Colombia es innegable. No obstante, la falta de apoyo institucional y la incipiente documentación
e investigación que existe sobre esta profesión en Colombia dificulta una lectura informada, amplia e
histórica de su labor. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, este artículo se propone presentar los resultados
de un estudio de caso sociológico desde un enfoque cuantitativo que reflexiona, de forma preliminar
o diagnóstica, sobre la situación actual de los traductores e intérpretes oficiales en Colombia, su es-
tatus y condiciones laborales. El presente estudio se basó principalmente en técnicas de la estadística
inferencial para procesar datos de una encuesta realizada a 200 informantes. En este artículo, se hace
especial énfasis en los resultados relacionados con la direccionalidad y su influencia en el comporta-
miento del mercado. En general, se encontró una amplia pluralidad en los perfiles de los informantes,
aunque más de la mitad de la muestra estaba representada por mujeres y el inglés se mantuvo como
la lengua de trabajo más recurrente entre los traductores con una presencia particularmente fuerte de
la traducción/interpretación inversa (hacia una lengua diferente al español). Así, esta investigación
identificó, describió y problematizó de manera preliminar varios aspectos relacionados con el merca-
do profesional que no habían sido estudiados y que son cruciales para leer y entender, de forma más
exhaustiva, el trabajo que realizan los traductores e intérpretes en Colombia.
Palabras clave: traducción e interpretación oficial; direccionalidad; mercado de la traducción; tra-
ducción en Colombia.
Une exploration quantitative de la directionnalité chez les traducteurs
et interprètes assermentés en Colombie
Résumé
La grande influence des traducteurs et des interprètes agréés dans le contexte professionnel de la
traduction est indéniable. Cependant, le manque de soutien institutionnel, ainsi que la pauvre émer-
gence de documentation et de recherches à leur sujet au pays fait en sorte qu’une lecture informée,
ample et historique sur leur activité devienne ardue. Ainsi, cet article vise à présenter les résultats
d’une étude de cas sociologique exploratoire, menée en suivant une approche quantitative, qui ré-
fléchit d’abord sur la situation actuelle des traducteurs et des interprètes agréés en Colombie, leur
statut et leurs conditions de travail. Cette étude s’est servie principalement de techniques propres à la
statistique inférentielle sur des données récoltées par l’entremise d’un sondage auprès de 200 langa-
giers au pays. Dans cette contribution, nous mettons l’accent sur les résultats liés à la directionnalité
et à l’impact de cette dernière sur le marché. En général, nous avons trouvé une grande pluralité en
termes de profils des participants. Cela dit, nous avons constaté que les femmes représentent plus de
la moitié de l’échantillon et que l’anglais constitue la langue de travail la plus récurrente parmi les
langagiers, avec une présence particulièrement forte de la traduction/interprétation vers une langue
seconde (c’est-à-dire, différente à l’espagnol). En outre, grâce à cette étude, nous avons identifié,
décrit et problématisé de façon exploratoire plusieurs aspects professionnels liés au marché n’ayant
jamais été étudiés jusqu’ici, et qui sont déterminants pour lire et comprendre de façon exhaustive le
travail développé par les traducteurs et les interprètes en Colombie.
Mots-clés : traduction et interprétation agréée ; directionnalité ; marché de la traduction ; traduction
en Colombie.
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
Introduction to the activity (Feria, 2007; Peñarroja, 1989;
Peñarroja & Cardona, 1993). Moreover, in
Sworn translators and interpreters (stis) are a Spain2, they have examined the status of stis 603
group of professionals known also as legal or from sociological, market-oriented, economic,
court translators/interpreters, because of their as well as other points of view (Biguri, 2007;
specific acting scenarios (i.e., mostly legal or de las Heras, 2017; El Ghazouani, 2008; Gil
governmental situations; Pym et al., 2012, & García, 2015; Lobato, 2007; Mayoral, 1999,
p. 26). They are a worldwide recognized re- 2000; Monzó, 2002; Perdu & Ridao, 2014;
munerated group of professionals (Mayoral, Salvador, 1996). Furthermore, they have con-
2000; Monzó, 2002; Pym et al., 2012), which tributed to the reflection about stis in their cor-
means that many institutions and individu- responding countries which, at the same time,
als know they exist, that some laws recognize contributes to the reflection of translation and
them, and that, in some cases, associations, gov- interpreting in general in the specific territory.
ernments, or schools regulate them (Stejskal, Examples of this are Zamora (2005) in Costa
2003, 2005). This recognition or authorization Rica, Guzmán (2008) in Russia, Barceló and
makes them crucial for many bilingual inter- Delgado (2016) in Spain and France, Martínez
actions between institutions and governments and Guilman (2005), and Cortés (2000) in
around the world. Furthermore, it puts them in Argentina, Livio (2000) in Brazil, and Hlavac
an essential position for most contacts between (2013) in Canada, among others.
two cultures and languages in specific types of
documents and scenarios (Mayoral, 2000). In Contrasting this wealth of initiatives and studies
addition, it differentiates them from other types in the world related to stis, in Colombia there
of translators/interpreters and places them at a are only six academic studies dealing with this
different level compared to other specialists in segment of translators/interpreters (Clavijo,
translation/interpretation (Monzó, 2002). 2011; Martín, 2013; Quiroz et al., 2013, 2015).
As the previous studies made in countries dif-
Given the above stated recognition of stis, the ferent from Spain, they are merely demographic
academia, as well as associations and gov- or descriptive. Quiroz et al. (2013), for example,
ernments in many countries, have carried out focused on defining the profile of candidates to
different studies and initiatives about them. become stis that were more likely to pass the
These studies and initiatives have described exam while Quiroz et al. (2015) focused on some
stis, their behavior, their functions, and their general aspects about stis as an occupational
acting scenarios and tried to understand their group. On the other hand, Quiroz and Zulu-
influence and status (Mayoral, 2000; Monzó, aga (2014) made a quantitative description of
2002; Stejskal, 2003, 2005). Additionally, they the performance of candidates to become stis,
have made the importance of this social group while Clavijo (2011) and Martin (2013) made
in our society clear (Heras, 2017; Galanes, a description of some general issues related to
2010; Vigier et al., 2013) and have helped offer the status of stis in the law and in the practice.
better alternatives for their training, associa- Thus, as can be seen, studies and initiatives on
tion, and regularization (Ordoñez, 2009; Orte- this segment of translators in Colombia have
ga, 2011; Zamora, 2005). By the same token, not deeply and recently explored any specific
they have explored the certification procedures
(Galanes, 2010; García, 2007; Ortega, 2011; 2 Notice that Spain is a very prolific country in
terms of research related to sworn translation
Vigier, 2010) and the historical aspects related and interpretation.
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
process related to their current status nor any Finally, the reader will find a brief summary
particular reflection about the market behavior of the findings and general discussions and
604 has been made. interpretations related to market behavior and
directionality.
In reality, there are very few studies around the
world concerning the market behavior of sworn 2. Theoretical Framework
translation and interpretation services. Some
of the main topics that have been left apart are This study draws on the directionality theories.
rates, professional offers, number of translators Specifically, it draws on key aspects or princi-
or interpreters in organization, among others. ples within this perspective. That is why, the
This reality is something that can also be seen following paragraphs provide key aspects about
in Colombia where only some projects or ini- the concept of directionality and, specifically,
tiatives have tried to carry out research projects about the current thoughts, beliefs, and reflec-
related to market behavior and status in this tion on this topic. However, before that, the sec-
segment of professionals. tion will provide some details concerning the
specific ways in which stis are denominated,
Accordingly, the present article intends to pres- regulated, and organized around the world and
ent some updated reflections on the current sit- in Colombia so that a better comprehension of
uation of sworn translators and interpreters in the international market behavior and beliefs
Colombia and some important aspects related are stated.
to market behavior, with special emphasis on
directionality. Consequently, the paper aims at 2.1. Sworn Translators and Interpreters
doing the following: (a) describe what the cur- around the World
rent state of Sworn Translators and Interpret-
ers in Colombia is; (b) describe the main aspects Sworn translators and interpreters are a group of
related to directionality in this group of profes- individuals that are also known as legal or court
sionals; (c) explain, by means of quantitative translators/interpreters because of their specif-
analysis, the main traits of the market in sworn ic acting scenarios (i.e., mostly legal or govern-
translation and interpreting in Colombia; and, mental situations; Pym et al., 2012, p. 26). They
(d) make some general comments on the find- exist almost all around the world and their ac-
ings of this study compared to the reality of the tivity, denominations, and regulations are very
profession of translators/interpreters in Colom- diverse. In terms of activities, what can be seen
bia and the world. is that, while their main task in countries such
as the United States is to translate/interpret
In the following sections, the reader will find from and into languages like Spanish, Chinese,
a brief description of details about stis such and Italian (Hammond, 1990), in some South
as the various ways in which they are denom- American countries, their task is to translate/
inated, regulated, or organized in the world interpret from and into indigenous languages
and in Colombia. In addition, they will find (Quiroz et al., 2015). Concerning regulation,
a brief summary of key aspects related to di- while in Canada their activity is regulated by
rectionality principles and theories that this associations (Hlavac, 2013), in Spain they are
study will draw on. Subsequently, the reader regulated by the government (Heras, 2017;
will see the main methodological aspects tak- Mayoral, 2000; Ordoñez, 2009), and in Colom-
en into account for the design of this research bia, according to Decrees 382 and 2257 (Colom-
such as participants and data gathering sources. bia, Diario Oficial, 1951b; Colombia, Diario
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
section in the general secretariat that certifies
translations). Sworn, a very old term referring to
the moment in which translators literally swore 605
before a notary to be faithful to their work,
represents the group of translators who have
approved tests administered or ruled by the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs or Justice to prove
or guarantee their degree of high performance
when translating (Stejskal, 2003; see the case
of Venezuela or Colombia where exams are
the only way to access the profession). Finally,
academically authorized is a group of translators
who, given their specific training in translation
and specifically in legal translation, are accept-
ed by the government to develop these tasks.
2.2. Sworn Translators and Interpreters
in Colombia
Sworn translation and interpreting is also a
Figure 1. Designations for Sworn Translators / very diverse reality in the Colombian context.
Interpreters in Latin America Actually, the designation of traductor e intérprete
Oficial, 1951a), they are overseen by two pub- oficial, which is the designation found in laws,
lic universities (Universidad de Antioquia and could cover three main groups of professionals.
Universidad Nacional, as reported by Clavijo, The first group is that of translators and inter-
2011). Finally, regarding denominations, while preters from and to oral languages that are not
in countries such as the United States and Can- official in the territory, such as French, Italian,
ada they are called certified, in Europe they English, among others, who are authorized to
are called legal, sworn or authorized transla- perform this activity after approving an exam,
tors (Pym et al., 2012), while in some South according to Decrees 382 and 2257 (Colom-
American countries they are called juramenta- bia, Diario Oficial, 1951a; Colombia, Diario
dos (Peru, Brazil), públicos (Venezuela, Argenti- Oficial, 1951b). In many places around the
na, Uruguay, Paraguay), or oficiales (Colombia, world, this group is usually known as sworn,
Chile; see Figure 1). so that all ambiguities with other professionals
within the field of translation/interpretation
According to Pym et al. (2012, p. 26), all those can be avoided. The second group are inter-
differences in denominations, specifically certi- preters from and into the Colombian sign lan-
fied, sworn, and academically authorized translators/ guage who already have a specific regulation
translations, show, at the same time, a specific according to Decree 2369 (Colombia, Diario
way of understanding their actions. Certified is Oficial, 1997) and Resolución 05274 (Colom-
normally a term referring to translations made bia, Diario Oficial, 2017) and who, now, must
by a notary-accepted or government-approved access the profession by means of a certifica-
translator who is not necessarily a stis (see tion or a university-level training program. In
the case of Honduras where there is a specific addition, the third group are translators and
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
interpreters from and into native languages ing on the use, degree of handling, and control,
that are co-official in the Colombian territory among others; (b) definition, which relates to
606 who already have a specific regulation in Law some issues in which aspects such as preference
1381 (Colombia, Diario Oficial, 2010). In this or control over some languages when translat-
last group, the particularity is that they are nor- ing or interpreting are tackled (Pokorn, 2005);
mally recognized by their communities and the (c) influence of directionality in the quality of
government and not by means of a certifica- translations, which is a historic issue first prob-
tion or a training process, as is the case of the lematized by Newmark (1988), but further ana-
first two groups. lyzed by several authors (Beeby, 1998; Campbell,
1998; Gile, 2005; Godjins & Hindaedael, 2005;
stis, the group in question for the present study, Kelly et al., 2003; Kiraly, 2000; Marmaridou,
referred as official in Colombia, are regularized 1996); (d) influence of directionality in trans-
by Decrees 382, 722 and 2257 (Colombia, Di- lators/interpreters training (Dollerup & Lod-
ario Oficial, 1951b, 1951a, 1982) and Law 962 degaard, 1992; Donovan, 2003; Fernández,
(Colombia, Diario Oficial, 2005). Nowadays, 2003; McAlester, 1992; among others); and (e)
there are more than 900 stis registered in the the relation between directionality and mar-
Directory of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs3. ket behavior (Grosman et al., 2000; Lorenzo,
These two previous facts contrast with the fact 1999, 2002).
that only one academic course is offered in the
country for candidates to become stis (see Curso For the purposes of this study, only some of the
de preparación para el examen para traductor e intér- reflections around the concept of directionality
prete oficial from Pontificia Universidad Javeriana4) will be covered. This study will understand lan-
and that there is not any current association, guage pairs as follows: “language A” will stand
ministry, department or institution to regulate for “Spanish” and “Additional language(s)” will
them. In addition, even though there is the norm stand for any other language different to Span-
ntc 5808 from icontec (2010) which defines ish in which a sworn translator or interpreter is
some translation activities (see icontec, 2010), certified.
only one page is dedicated to stis and its content
is still merely informative. 2.4. Key Aspects to Be Taken
Into Account in a Market-Oriented
2.3. Directionality Perspective to Directionality
The concept of directionality in languages has Market-oriented studies in the context of di-
always been problematic (T. Pavlović, 2013). In rectionality are some of the more productive.
the translation industry and theory, some of the In fact, the following are some of the main as-
main issues this discussion has risen are the fol- pects analyzed in this kind of studies: language
lowing: (a) denomination (N. Pavlović, 2016), status (McAlester, 1992), geopolitical situation
which stands for the ideological, philosophical of the market in question (Campbell, 1998);
and practical way of naming languages depend- mother tongue, native tongue and other ideo-
logical and philosophical issues related to de-
nominations (Kelly et al., 2003), cognitive and
3 Consulted on May 3, 2015, https://tramites.can- linguistic effort, among others. As stated by
cilleria.gov.co/ApostillaLegalizacion/directorio/
Gallego (2014, p. 230), when discussing some
Traductores.aspx
4 https://educacionvirtual.javeriana.edu.co/ aspects related to ideological beliefs in direc-
traductor-oficial-del-ingles tionality, he observes that “la traducción inversa
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
en el mercado profesional existe y puede enmarcarse (dt), and as such, additional studies are nec-
como una actividad social funcional [reverse trans- essary to make further advancements in tpr.
lation in the professional market exists and can (p. 63) 607
be framed as a functional social activity].” He
The aforementioned reflection on the lack of
also analyzes the fact that reverse or inverse di-
studies carried out on inverse translation (it)
rectionality, which means translating from your
has also been emphasized by some other au-
first language to a second tongue, is actually a
thors. Pavlovic and Jensen (2019) for instance
very common activity among language service
described cognitive and physical aspects in a
enterprises and professionals, and it has some
group of Croatian translators finding interest-
implications for the practice of translation itself
ing patterns in their behavior which indicates
such as the increase of cognitive effort or the
a higher effort when doing inverse translating.
lack of quality of the final translation.
Ferreira’s studies showed a similar thread when
By the same token, some other authors such exploring the topic of effort of inverse trans-
as McAlester (1992) reflect on the fact that this lating, a topic of interest for the present study.
behavior of the market is very often due to the Not only does inverse translating require a high-
lack of competent translators in minority (in er cognitive and physical effort, it also uprises
terms of number of speakers) languages such as social issues related to language status and pro-
Finnish, Danish, or some other Scandinavian fessional status. For this research, these three
languages. Both reflections, the one concerning aspects will be observed and problematized in
the segment of sworn translators and interpret-
the fact that reverse or inverse directionality is
ers in Colombia.
a very active area in many enterprises as well
as the one explaining this reality with aspects 3. Research Design
such as number of speakers or languages status,
can also be seen in Colombia. As will be fur- The present article is part of a larger project that
ther discussed, Colombia is a very interesting can be categorized as a sociological case study.
place to describe when it comes to directional- The following paragraphs will describe the de-
ity. First, because for years, Colombia has had a tails of this sociological case study, the partici-
very modest economic opening to countries in pants that took part in this project, and the data
which Spanish is not the lingua franca. Second, collection procedures that were carried out.
because of the number of native or co-official
languages co-existing with Spanish, that is, 3.1. Method
more than 65 languages.
Firstly, this study followed a quantitative ap-
As stated by Ferreira et al. (2016): proach, since its main purpose was to analyze
a particular reality by means of the explora-
directionality in translation has recently re- tion of different variables connected to it, and
sulted in an increase in the number of studies secondly, because data was analyzed by deduc-
that contribute to understanding the cognitive
tive processes and it aimed at having a linear
mechanisms that are involved in the transla-
tion process (e.g., Alves & Gonçalves 2013;
sequence for the comprehension and analysis
Ferreira 2012, 2014; pacte 2011; Pavlović & of the phenomenon. This study was meant to
Jensen 2009). There remain several gaps in describe the phenomenon so that an objective
what we know about the practice of inverse comprehension or diagnosis of what is hap-
translation (it) in contrast to direct translation pening in the context of stis and directionality
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
in Colombia is reached. It is worth mentioning in different languages, such as German, Portu-
here that further aspects related to some con- guese, Russian, and others. The present study
608 clusions drawn from qualitative data are also took the total number of stis as the universe
part of the larger project; thus, for the purposes and subsequently took a representative sample
of this article, only the quantitative perspective proportional to the size of that universe
and results from the study will be presented. (Kuznik et al., 2010) of 200 responders for the
implementation of a survey. This sampling
This research study followed a method of so- process was carried out with a confidence level
ciological case studies. These, as defined by of 94 % and a margin of error of 6 %. The only
Hancock & Algozzine (2006), focus on “soci- criterion for the selection of the participants is
ety, social institutions, and social relationships, that they were holders of the certificate of sti
examining [sic] the structure, development, in- delivered by Universidad Nacional, Instituto Elec-
teraction, and collective behavior of organized trónico de Idiomas, the Ministry of Justice or Uni-
groups of individuals” (p. 32), which is the versidad de Antioquia.
main emphasis of the present study. Accord-
ingly, this article presents some reflections on 3.3. Quantitative Analysis Implemented
directionality in the context of the social group
of the stis. All data was organized and described statisti-
cally, and then processed and analyzed with
3.2. Participants some inferential statistical tests assisted by the
program RStudio (“RStudio: Integrated devel-
The participants of this study are Colombian opment for R”, 2015). It is important to men-
stis. According to the Directory of Sworn Trans- tion that this study took an alpha value (α) or
lators and Interpreters of the Ministry of Foreign a significance value of 0.06 as reference for all
Affairs, there are around 900 registries of stis in the implemented tests. The main characteris-
the country. According to the same Directory, tics of the data are:
from those 900 registries, 70 % correspond to stis
certified in English–Spanish, about 7 % to stis in • Quantitative variable: The only quantitative
French-Spanish, 7 % to stis in Italian-Spanish, variable examined in this study is denomina-
while the rest of the sample correspond to stis ted here as “percentage of work dedication
Figure 2. Boxplot for the Distribution of the Quantitative Variable: Percentage of Translation/
Interpreting Into Language A (Spanish) From Any Additional Language Among stis.
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
609
Figure 3. Density Plot for the Distribution of the Quantitative Variable: Percentage of Translation/
Interpreting Into Language A (Spanish) From Any Additional Language Among stis
to translation or interpretation into language made. The statistical mean for this variable
A (Spanish).” In order to get this informa- was 39.3 %.
tion, translators were asked to indicate the
percentage of work they dedicated to trans- • Qualitative variables: All the qualitative vari-
lating or interpreting from the additional ables were defined by examining the ques-
language of their certification into Spanish. tions proposed for the survey. All of them
When examining this variable, we applied were organized as follows: (a) demographic
the Shapiro-Wilk test to determine whether aspects (certified pair of languages, decade of
this variable had a normal distribution or certification, place of certification, age, birth
place, field of knowledge according to their
not; and the result of the test, with a p-value
bachelor’s degree, sex, place of residence,
of 2.926e-05, led this study to conclude that
specific training in translation/interpreting);
indeed this variable could only be explored
and (b) clientele (time dedicated to projects
by means of non-parametric statistics tests related to sworn translation/interpretation
since it does not comply with one of the as- during a regular week, source of employ-
sumptions parametric tests have to be used: ment, client profile, promotion of services,
that the quantitative variable(s) must have a and interpreters only vs translators and inter-
normal distribution. As can be observed in preters). During the study, those registries in
Figures 2 and 3, the distribution of this varia- which no data were available in the qualita-
ble is very irregular when comparing it to the tive variables were eliminated. This decision
Gaussian Curve. To conclude, it is crucial to was made to guarantee that there would not
mention the process of imputation used in be any manipulation of the data. In almost
this variable. In order to get as much informa- all cases, the maximum number of elimina-
tion as possible from the sample, a process of tions was 15 out of 200.
imputation for statistical mean for all the ca-
ses in which there was not information about • Tests made crossing qualitative variable with
the percentage when crossed with the qualita- the quantitative variable: Taking into account
tive variable was made in this study. In almost that the quantitative variable did not have a
all cases, a maximum of 11 imputations were normal distribution, all applied tests were
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
non-parametric. The following were the main about the previous two inputs including some ref-
tests applied for the present study: erences to the existing literature in the field.
610
— Mann-Whitney U-test or Wilcoxon 4.1. Demographic Aspects
Ranks sums test: This test was applied
for the qualitative variables “sex” (man After observing the descriptive analysis of
or woman), “place of residence” (Cun- questions related to this issue, some general
dinamarca or a place different from demographic aspects of the market of sworn
Cundinamarca), whether stis had any translation and interpretation in Colombia
specific training in translation or not, are as follows: (a) 60 % of sworn translators
whether stis promoted their work or not, and interpreters are women; (b) 70 % of
and finally, whether stis worked as inter- the translators of the sample are located in
preters too or not. Cundinamarca, the province where the cap-
— Kruskal-Wallis test: For this test, sev- ital city of Colombia (Bogotá) can be found;
eral hypotheses were made and proven (c) 70 % were born in Colombia; (d) half of
within the same group of sworn transla- them —50 %— are over 50 years old; (e) 70 %
tors, all of the remaining variables men- of them are certified in the language pair En-
tioned before were used here. glish-Spanish; (f) 95 % of them are active in
translation and interpretation; (g) 90 % of them
• Tests made with qualitative variables: In or- completed an undergraduate training process;
der to prove or disprove some hypotheses and, (h) 60 % of them completed a graduate
related to the association or dependence of training process; (i) even if only 10 % of them
two qualitative variables that were import- are part of an association related to translation
ant for this study, the Chi-square test was ap- or languages, 80 % of them are in favor of cre-
plied. The comparisons were made between ating an association related to sworn transla-
the following variables: (a) language pair tion/interpretation in Colombia; (j) 90 % of
certified and sex, (b) language pair certified them currently interact or have interacted with
and year of certification, and (c) language other sworn translators/interpreters for differ-
pair of certification and age. These compar- ent purposes.
isons were made to determine if there were
any specific behaviors depending on the addi- 4.1.1. Inferential Statistical Tests Applied
tional language certified. and Their Results
4. Results and Discussion After having looked at the descriptive data,
some interesting or appealing aspects called
As stated before, there were two main aspects the attention of the researchers. In Tables 1, 2,
examined by means of statistical inferential tech- and 3, readers can observe some of the inter-
niques for this paper: (a) demographic aspects, esting information that emerged when explor-
and (b) clientele and market-related translator ing two variables, the hypothesis made for that
profiles. In this segment of the paper, the infor- specific test and, finally, the results and infor-
mation will be presented as follows: general de- mation extracted from them.
scriptive statistical data found in the variables
explored for that group of aspects, tables and On the one hand, as can be seen on Tables 1
figures of the variables combined by means of and 2, the statistical tests show that there is not
inferential statistical tests, and general comments a statistically meaningful difference between
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
Table 1. Hypothesis, Results, and Conclusions for Tests with Polytomous Qualitative Variables vs. the Quantitative
Variable with Kruskal-Wallis Tests
611
Null hypothesis:
H0: There is not a statistically
meaningful difference
between the median of the
percentage of work into Result
Language A (Spanish)… (p-value)
Test Description of the polytomous
Conclusion
applied qualitative variable
Alternative hypothesis: Reference
H1: There is a statistically p-value: 0.05
meaningful difference
between the median of the
percentage of work into
Language A (Spanish)…
…among 4 different groups
Certified pair of languages
of sworn translators and The null
(a) English; (b) Italian; (c) French;
interpreters: those certified 0.9159 hypothesis is
(d) Other languages (less than
in English, Italian, French, or accepted.
4 sti).
other languages.
Decade of certification
The alternative
(a) 1960 – 1969; (b) 1970 – 1979; …depending on their
2.2e-16 hypothesis is
(c) 1980 – 1989; (d) 1990 – 1999; decade of certification.
accepted.
(e) 2000 – 2009; (f) 2010 – 2019.
Place of certification
(a) Universidad de Antioquia; (b) The null
…depending on their place
Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas; 0.5136 hypothesis is
of certification.
(c) Universidad Nacional - Sede accepted.
Bogotá.
Age
(a) 25 – 29; (b) 30 – 34; (c) 35 The null
– 39; (d) 40 – 44; (e) 45 – 49; (f) …depending on their age. 0.2677 hypothesis is
Kruskal-
50 – 54; (g) 55 – 59; (h) 60 – 64; (i) accepted.
Wallis
Más de 65.
Birth place
(a) Bogotá; (b) cities outside
The null
Colombia; (c) other cities of …depending on their birth
0.3066 hypothesis is
Colombia (less than 5 sti); (d) place.
accepted.
Barranquilla; (e) Medellín; (f) Cali;
(g) Cartagena.
Field of knowledge according to
their bachelor’s degree
(a) Language Sciences
(translation, philology, literature,
communications, etc.); (b) …depending on the field The null
Education Sciences (languages of knowledge of their 0.1623 hypothesis is
teaching, teaching of any bachelor’s degree. accepted.
science/field); (c) Social and
Human Sciences; (d) Exact
and Natural Sciences; (e)
Engineering; (f) Health Sciences.
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
Table 2. Hypothesis, Results, and Conclusions for Tests with Dichotomous Qualitative Variables vs. the Quantitative
Variable with Mann-Whitney U-Tests or Wilcoxon Ranks Sums Tests
612 Null hypothesis:
H0: There is not a statistically meaningful
difference between the median of the
percentage of work into Language A Result
Description of (Spanish)… (p-value)
Test applied the dichotomous Conclusion
qualitative variable Alternative hypothesis: Reference
H1: There is a statistically meaningful p-value: 0.05
difference between the median of the
percentage of work into Language A
(Spanish)…
Sex of sti The null
…depending on their sex (understood as
(a) Men; (b) 0.892 hypothesis is
man and woman).
Women. accepted.
Place of
Mann-
Residence
Whitney The null
(a) Cundinamarca …place of residence (reduced to a
U-test or 0.9138 hypothesis is
(including Bogotá, dichotomous variable).
Wilcoxon accepted.
the capital city);
Ranks sums
(b) any other city.
test
Specific Training
…depending on whether they have The null
in Translation/
completed a training process in translation/ 0.5324 hypothesis is
Interpreting?
interpretation or not. accepted.
(a) Yes; (b) No.
the median of the percentage of work into in this paper due to the data found and tested
Language A (Spanish) and sti certified pair for this research study. In Colombia, this is also
of languages, place of certification, age, birth- a very widespread belief (Clavijo et al., 2006,
place, field of knowledge according to their p. 63). The question now is whether university
bachelor’s degree, place of residence or spe- programs should keep focusing their training in
cific training in translation/interpreting. This translation and interpreting on Spanish. Should
information suggests, at the same time, several we rethink training programs taking into ac-
issues than can be more deeply discussed or count the fact that inverse translation (into an
analyzed, given that, as stated before, from a additional language) is more commonly de-
statistically descriptive point of view, the per- manded by the market? Another interesting fact
centage of work into an additional language to analyze in this stage, is the one related to the
among sti is superior (60 %) to the amount of special effort translators have to do to inverse
work done into Spanish. translating (Ferreira et al., 2016). This is im-
portant since, in Colombia, so far, the topic of
The old belief in many places where issues re- directionality and its cognitive implications has
lated to translation/interpreting are carried out not been tackled nor in the general segment of
is that translators should not translate or inter- translators nor in the segment of sworn transla-
pret into an additional language different to tors and interpreters.
their native language (Newmark, 1988). This
common belief, strongly enrooted in several or- Another interesting aspect related to this find-
ganizations, governments, and more evidently, ing is that even though there is poor evidence,
study programs in universities, is questioned if any, on the influence of some languages or
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
613
Figure 4. Subsequent Test for the Wilcoxon Ranks Sums Test
Figure 5. Boxplot for the Variable Decade of Certification
foreign cultures in the translation market in the different decades of certification among
Colombia, it is important to observe the ho- sti were explored. An interesting aspect of this
mogeneity of work dedication among sti re- finding is that this is not a very common topic
gardless of their language of certification. If of discussion in directionality research. Nev-
we take a look at underrepresented languages ertheless, for the Colombian context, it could
from the Directory (for instance, Arabic, Nor- be said that there is a specific predestination to
wegian, Swedish, Ukrainian, among others), translate/interpret more into Spanish or into
it will be observed that the translation market English for sti depending on their decade of
behaves the same or, at least, does not behave certification (Figure 5). When applying the
differently in comparison to other overrepre- posterior test to determine or to observe the
sented languages such as English. differences, we can observe (see Figure 4) that
there are very prominent differences between
Despite the common belief that places like the almost all segments of sti. As will be clarified
capital city, Bogotá, or the touristic capital city, later, the focus of this research was not to de-
Cartagena, are two of the cities with the big- termine why this happens. Instead it aimed to
gest amount of work percentage into Spanish, point out that, in fact, some peculiarities in the
there is not any statistically meaningful differ- context of sworn translation and interpreta-
ence between the demographic area and the sti tion are taking place and should be described
interpreting or translation direction. or tackled in the future.
As can be seen in Table 2, the only test in which Additionally, another special exploration made
the alternative hypothesis was accepted for the with the data that is worth discussing is how
demographic category was the one in which languages could behave or associate differently
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
Table 3. Hypothesis, Results, and Conclusions for Tests with Qualitative Variables with Chi-square
614 Null hypothesis:
H0: There is not a
statistically meaningful
association or
dependence between Result
Test the variables… (p-value) /
Contingency table Conclusion
applied Effect size (if
Alternative hypothesis: applicable)
H1: There is a statistically
meaningful association or
dependence between
the variables…
Men Women Total
… language pair
certified (divided into English 60 89 149
four sub-groups [English, Italian 7 9 16 The null
Italian, French, and 0.8996 hypothesis is
other languages]) and French 8 9 17 accepted.
sex (men and women) Other
9 16 25
among sti. languages
Total 84 123 207
…language pair certified
and year of certification.
* Only the certifications Other
English Total
made after 1980 were languages
0.01954 The
taken into account due 1980 – 1989 25 6 31 alternative
to the fact that only 5
Effect size: 1990 - 1999 42 12 54 hypothesis is
registries were observed
0.2155208 accepted.
after this year, and 2000 - 2009 22 20 42
Chi- according to this test, this
2010 - 2019 52 19 71
square experiment cannot be
made when some of the Total 146 57 203
values equal “0.”
Other
…language pair certified Total
English languages
and age.
30 - 34 17 4 21
* Only the sti older than 35 - 39 13 7 20
25 years were taken
40 - 44 12 3 15
into account due to the The null
fact that only 7 registries 0.1589 45 - 49 10 7 17 hypothesis is
of sti were observed in 50 - 54 8 7 15 accepted.
this range of ages, and
55 - 59 25 6 31
according to this test, this
experiment cannot be 60 - 64 16 5 21
made when some of the More than
values equal “0.” 50
65 42 8
Total 150 47 197
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
Table 4. Hypothesis, Results, and Conclusions for Tests with Polytomous Qualitative Variables vs. the Quantitative
Variable with Kruskal-Wallis Tests
Null hypothesis: 615
H0: There is not a statistically
meaningful difference
between the median of the Result
percentage of work into (p-value)
Language A (Spanish)…
Test Description of the polytomous
Reference Conclusion
applied qualitative variable
Alternative hypothesis: p-value:
H1: There is a statistically 0.05
meaningful difference
between the median of the
percentage of work into
Language A (Spanish)…
Time dedicated to projects
related to sworn translation/
…and the time spent in
interpretation during a regular
projects related to sworn The null hypothesis
week: 0.5803
translation or interpretation is accepted.
(a) 1 to 10 hours; (b) 11 to 20
during a regular week.
hours; (c) 21 to 30 hours; (d) 31 to
40 hours; (e) more than 40 hours.
Source of employment for stis:
(a) Natural persons; (b) private
enterprises that do not belong
to the linguistic services business;
(c) private or public (official) …depending on the source of The null hypothesis
0.6867
enterprises that belong to the employment of stis. is accepted.
linguistic services business;
(d) public (official) enterprises that
do not belong to the linguistic
services business.
Kruskal- Client profile:
Wallis (a) National natural persons; (b)
national private enterprises that
do not belong to the linguistic
services business; (c) foreign
private enterprises that do not
belong to the linguistic services
business; (d) foreign natural
persons; (e) national public
(official) enterprises that do not …depending on the client The null hypothesis
0.1881
belong to the linguistic services profile they assist the most. is accepted.
business; (f) national private or
public (official) enterprises that
belong to the linguistic services
business; (g) foreign private or
public (official) enterprises that
belong to the linguistic services
business; (i) foreign public (official)
enterprises that do not belong to
the linguistic services business.
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
Table 5. Hypothesis, Results, and Conclusions for Tests with Dichotomous Qualitative Variables vs. the Quantitative
Variable with Mann-Whitney U-tests or Wilcoxon Ranks Sums Tests
616 Null hypothesis:
H0: There is not a statistically
meaningful difference
between the median of the
percentage of work into Result
Description of Language A (Spanish)… (p-value)
Test applied the dichotomous Conclusion
qualitative variable Alternative hypothesis: Reference
H1: There is a statistically p-value: 0.05
meaningful difference
between the median of the
percentage of work into
Language A (Spanish)…
Do you promote …depending on whether The null
your services as a sti? they promote their services 0.8033 hypothesis is
Mann-Whitney U-test (a) Yes; (b) No or not. accepted.
or Wilcoxon Ranks
Do you work as an …depending on whether The null
sums test
interpreter? they work as interpreters or 0.3437 hypothesis is
(a) Yes; (b) No not. accepted.
depending on a series of qualitative variables. carried out by them are made from language A
In Table 3, neither age nor sex are determining into the additional language; (c) 60 % of them
or strongly correlated with the language certi- have as clients natural persons while 30 % of
fied by sti. This finding shows once again a cer- them have private enterprises that are not in the
tain homogeneity in sti profiles when it comes languages services domain as their clients; (d)
to language and, at the same time, brings the 60 % of them get their sworn translation/inter-
discussion to the table about the specific exter-
pretation projects from natural persons; (e) for
nal organizational patterns that make sworn
50 % of them, the main parameter when defin-
translation and interpreting a very similar ac-
tivity regardless of the language expertise. It is ing the budget of a sworn translation is the final
also important to mention the fact that once number of pages or words of the translated paper;
again the year of certification showed a spe- (f) for 50 % of them, the main parameter when
cial association with a variable. In this case, defining how to charge clients for interpreting
according to the second test in Table 3, there is services is the number of hours; (g) for 50 % of
an association with a size effect of 0.2 between them, the main types of documents when trans-
the language certified and the year of certifica- lating are legal or juridical documents, followed
tion of sti. by commercial documents, and in the third
place, academic documents; (h) 60 % of them do
4.2. Clientele and Market-Related Aspects not have a well-defined technique or strategy to
promote their services.
When observing the descriptive analysis, some
general clientele-related aspects of the market of 4.2.1. Inferential Statistical Tests
sworn translation and interpretation in Colombia applied and Results
are the following: (a) 40 % of sworn translators
and interpreters use from 1 to 10 hours per week After having looked at the descriptive data,
to tasks and projects related to sworn translation/ some interesting or appealing aspects called the
interpretation; (b) 61 % of the projects and tasks attention of the researchers. In Tables 4 and 5,
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosA Quantitative Exploration to Directionality Among Sworn Translators and Interpreters in Colombia
readers can observe some of the interesting in- professional updating among translators in Co-
formation that emerged when exploring two lombia and the lack of training offers for profes-
variables, the hypothesis made for that specific sionals in this area (something already discussed 617
test, and finally, the results and information ex- by Gómez, 2019). In reality, as previously ana-
tracted from them. lyzed, the fact that inverse translation requires a
specific and, in some cases, specialized set of
As can be seen in Tables 4 and 5, statistical skills should be a topic of discussion in trans-
tests show that there is not a statistically mean- lation studies in Colombia. Authors such as
ingful difference between the median of the Pavlovic or Ferreira have already problema-
percentage of work into Language A (Span- tized the issue of cognitive effort when inverse
ish) and the time spent in projects related to translating, an understudied topic in Colom-
sworn translation/interpretation during a reg- bia in the general segment of translators and
ular week. The same is true for the source of in the segment, as well as among sworn trans-
employment for stis or the client profile, and lators and interpreters.
the promotion of services or work as an inter-
preter. This information suggests, at the same As could be observed before, the current mar-
time, several issues than can be more deeply ket for sti clients is mostly represented by nat-
discussed or analyzed, given that, as stated ural persons. This allows this study to propose
before, from a statistically descriptive point of a reflection on the informality of the activity,
view, the percentage of work into an additional based on the fact that contact with clients, as
language among stis is superior (60 %) to the confirmed by some other research initiatives
amount of work done into Spanish. (Quiroz & Zuluaga, 2014), is made directly by
the sti rather than brokered by any agency or
5. Conclusions institution to back them up in case of any trou-
bles with the project.
The present article intended to present some re-
flections and an analysis on the current situation As shown by the inferential statistics tests, there
of sworn translators and interpreters in Colom- is a specific behavior among sti depending on
bia, as well as some important aspects related to their year of certification. This finding is inter-
market behavior, with special emphasis on di- esting, but due to the lack of information our
rectionality, taken from a larger project in which survey collected on this topic, we are unable to
a sociological case study was implemented. All further develop it. However, this finding allows
data and analysis presented here were mainly us to reflect on some differential characteristics
tackled from a quantitative perspective since the among stis and invites us to determine profiles
main data source for this part of the project was between translators themselves and observe
a survey. how their practices vary depending on vari-
ables such as year of certification.
In general terms, it is crucial to take a deep
look at the emphasis of training institutions It is important to rethink some professional, so-
of translators-to-be in the translation direc- cial, and organizational aspects of translation
tionality given the previously stated evidence and interpretation in Colombia and specifical-
from both descriptive and inferential statistics ly in sworn translation and interpretation. This
of the importance of additional languages in the process of rethinking should focus on aspects
market behavior in the Colombian landscape. It such as associations and their influence in daily
is also essential to rethink the different process of interactions between stis and clients, structure
Mutatis Mutandis. Revista Latinoamericana de Traducción
Vol. 14, Issue 2, 2021, July-December, pp. 601-622Juan Felipe Zuluaga Molina & Antonio Tamayo Herrera
and offer of training and updating processes, findings drawn can be discussed in a more de-
the need for more cohesive and effective ways tailed manner.
618 to control and surveil the remunerated activity,
among others. Some other authors have already References
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Barceló, M., & Delgado, I. (2016). La traduction
(2015). assermentée en Espagne et en France: Aspects
privés et étude comparative. Revista de Llengua
5.1. Limitations and Future Projects i Dret, 66, 124–135.
Beeby, A. (1998). Direction of translation (direc-
Although this project collected and analyzed
tionality). In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge En-
data in an organized and consistent way, it is cyclopedia of Translation Studies (pp. 63–67).
important to mention a few limitations related Routledge.
to specific parts of the research process.
Biguri, K. (2007). La situación actual de la traduc-
ción jurada en lengua vasca. Papers Lextra, 3,
In terms of the methodological design, this 37–40.
paper focused on presenting and analyzing
Campbell, S. (1998). Translation into the second lan-
quantitative data. This focus of interpretation guage. Longman.
is evidently not enough to be able to read and
Clavijo, B. (2011). Algunos apartes de la traduc-
define from more sociological and perceptional
ción jurídica y oficial en Colombia. Revista
points of view the current state of the profes- ean, 70, 58–67.
sion. Nevertheless, it does offer a diagnosis of
Clavijo, B., Mendoza, E., Franco, A., Duque, M.,
the situation and draws some lines or directions
& Rodríguez, E. (2008). Babel en las empresas
to which studies in this area should go. That colombianas: una mirada actual de la traducción.
is why, this paper accepts that all the informa- Universidad ean.
tion given in it should be further inspected from Clavijo, B., Panqueva, M. C., Correal, M. C.,
other points of view so that the discussion can Duque, M. I., Mendoza, E., Franco, C., &
be more productive in terms of the reading and Galindo, J. A. (2006). Necesidad de la tra-
understanding of this social group. ducción en las empresas. Revista ean, 58,
61–78. https://doi.org/10.21158/01208160.
In theoretical and practical terms, this paper n58.2006.387
focused on directionality despite it was not Colombia, Diario Oficial. (1951a). Decreto 2257, por
conceived to address this topic. Actually, if el cual se reglamenta el Decreto-ley 382 del 19 de
readers observe some other studies on this febrero de 1951, sobre intérpretes oficiales. http://
topic, they will find reflections on native lan- www.suin-juriscol.gov.co/viewDocument.as-
p?ruta=Decretos/30040172
guages of the translators/interpreters being
part of the sample or life story or linguistic Colombia, Diario Oficial. (1951b). Decreto 382,
por el cual se creá el cargo de Intérpretes Oficiales.
biography of informants, among others. This
https://www.suin-juriscol.gov.co/viewDocu-
study acknowledges its focus —when initial- ment.asp?id=1086126
ly structuring the proposal— was not that of
Colombia, Diario Oficial. (1982). Decreto 722. Por
directionality, but rather a general overview
el cual se dictan normas sobre el ejercicio de la pro-
of sworn translation and interpretation in Co- fesión de intérpretes oficiales. http://www.su-
lombia. Nevertheless, this study urges some in-juriscol.gov.co/viewDocument.asp?ruta=-
new research and studies to tackle the topic of Decretos/1153318
directionality in a more organized and deep- Colombia, Diario Oficial. (1997). Decreto 2369.
er way, so that the preliminary conclusions or por el cual se reglamenta parcialmente la Ley
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación en la traducción especializada en lenguas románicas:
aspectos comparativos, léxicos, fraseológicos, discursivos y didácticosVous pouvez aussi lire
