Comprendre le (sous) development des pays de Sud - Leesu
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ENPC SGE SAGE 24/05/2018
Comprendre le (sous)
development
des pays de Sud
Martin SEIDL
martin.seidl@ leesu.enpc.fr
Université Paris-Est LEESU ENPC
v.2018-1
1. Pays sous-développé
2. Pays en développement
3. Pays en voie de développement
(Under )developpement
In economics, underdevelopment is when resources are not used
to their full socio-economic potential compared to the countries
elevated as standard
In economics, development is the transformation of a country’s
economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern,
urbanized manufacturing and service economy.
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Déclaration universelle des droits
de l'homme de 1948 (UN):
Art. 22 — Toute personne [...] a droit à la sécurité sociale ; elle est fondée à
obtenir la satisfaction des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels
indispensables à sa dignité et au libre développement de sa personnalité
[...].
Art. 23 — Toute personne a droit au travail, au libre choix de son travail, à
des conditions équitables et satisfaisantes de travail et à la protection
contre le chômage.[...]
Art. 24 — Toute personne a droit au repos et aux loisirs et notamment à une
limitation raisonnable de la durée du travail et à des congés payés
périodiques.
Art. 25 — Toute personne a droit à un niveau de vie suffisant pour assurer sa
santé, son bien-être et ceux de sa famille, notamment pour l'alimentation,
l'habillement, le logement, les soins médicaux ainsi que pour les services
sociaux nécessaires ;
Art. 26 — Toute personne a droit à l'éducation. [...] L'éducation doit viser au
plein épanouissement de la personnalité humaine et au renforcement du
respect des droits de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales. Elle doit
favoriser la compréhension, la tolérance et l'amitié entre toutes les nations
et tous les groupes raciaux ou religieux, ainsi que le développement des
activités des Nations unies pour le maintien de la paix. 3
Développement humain
« Le principal objectif du développement humain est d'élargir la
gamme des choix offerts à la population, qui permettent de
rendre le développement plus démocratique et plus participatif.
Ces choix doivent comprendre des possibilités d'accéder aux
revenus et à l'emploi, à l'éducation et aux soins de santé et à un
environnement propre ne présentant pas de danger. L'individu
doit également avoir la possibilité de participer pleinement aux
décisions de la communauté et de jouir des libertés humaines,
économiques et politiques ».
PNUD
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Indicateurs
Socio-économiques
World’s average inhabitant:
lives in a hut,
cannot read or write,
labours ~15 hours a day,works on land (s)he does not own,
is always hungry,
is burdened by disease,
will die young,
has an inadequate water supply & sanitation
IS POOR (lack of economic means)
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Indicateur / indice
Un indicateur est un outil d'évaluation et d'aide à la
décision grâce auquel on va pouvoir mesurer une
situation ou une tendance, de façon relativement
objective, à un instant donné, ou dans le temps et/ou
l'espace. Il doit exister une relation causale entre le fait
mesuré (indiqué) et l’indicateur. Un indicateur peut en
agréger d'autres. Pour un indicateur agrégé, on parle
plus souvent d'indice.
IDH indice de développement humain
IPH indice de pauvreté humaine
7
L'indice de développement humain
L'indice de développement humain (IDH) est un indice statistique
composite, créé par le Programme des Nations Unies pour le
Développement (PNUD) en 1990 pour évaluer le taux de
développement humain des pays du monde. L'IDH se fondait alors
sur trois critères : le PIB par habitant, l'espérance de vie à la
naissance et le niveau d'éducation des enfants de 15 ans et plus.
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HDI, human developement index
9
HDI
http://hdr.undp.org/en/data/map
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The Inequality-adjusted Human
Development Index (IHDI)
a "measure of the average level of human development of people in a
society once inequality is taken into account."
Raw HDI 2013
11
HDI trends
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HDI, local disparities, IDF
0.5
1
13
IDF
L’IDH-2 : vers une
nouvelle géographie
des inégalités
sociales en Ile-de-
France?
on notera au passage
qu’il existe une très forte
corrélation entre l’indice
d’éducation et l’indice de
revenus. Les corrélations
avec l’indice d’espérance
de vie sont un peu moins
fortes.
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HDI, local disparities
15
Poverty indexes
Poverty" defined as an economic condition of
lacking both money and basic necessities
needed to successfully live, such as food, water,
education, healthcare, and shelter. There are
many working definitions of "poverty," with
considerable debate on how to best define the
term. Income security, economic stability and the
predictability of one's continued means to meet
basic needs all serve as absolute indicators of
poverty. Poverty may therefore also be defined
as the economic condition of lacking predictable
and stable means of meeting basic life needs.
national poverty line —the poverty line deemed
appropriate for a country by its authorities.
National estimates are based on population-
weighted subgroup estimates from household
surveys. Definitions of the poverty line may vary
considerably among nations. In 2008, in the
United States of America, the poverty threshold
for a single person under 65 was US$ 30 a day
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« l’euro [est une]
Income monnaie d’origine
privée administrée
au niveau
européen par un
pouvoir
technocratique
2.8 billion people (nearly concentré et
half the world’s supérieur aux
gouvernements
population) live on représentatifs des
populations
< 2 € per day rassemblées dans
=35 000 CFA/month l’Union »
Théret 2013
=150 R$ /month
50% of them lived
with < 1 €
UN 1998
17
Poverty
ENPC SGE SAGE 24/05/2018
Focus sur Paris
19
Income (non)distribution
Annual income flows of the
richest 500 people
exceeds that of the
poorest 416 000 000
Cost of ending extreme
poverty – $300 billion –
less than 2% of the
income of the richest 10%
of the world’s population
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GINI
Gini coefficient
The Gini coefficient is usually defined ..
mathematically based on the Lorenz curve
(below). It can be thought of as the ratio of
the area that lies between the line of equality
and the Lorenz curve (marked 'A' in the
diagram) over the total area under the line of
equality (marked 'A' and 'B' in the diagram);
i.e., G=A/(A+B).
While most developed European nations and
Canada tend to have Gini indices between
24% (Denmark) and 36% (France), the
United States' and Mexico's Gini indices are
both above 40 and 60% for Brazil, indicating
that the latter have greater inequality.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_curve
21
GINI (2008)
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Economic disparity
Income per person per year, kUS$
A sixfold disparity
23
Economic disparity
A sixfold disparity
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10R/10P
BRAZIL
‘Livings’ 2011
Population
194 million
Poverty
27 million
(14%)
lived withENPC SGE SAGE 24/05/2018
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) of Gross Domestic Product for the countries of the
world as of 2003. The economy of the United States is used as a reference, so that
country is set at 100. Bermuda has the highest index value, 154, thus goods sold in
Bermuda are 54% more expensive than in the United States.
27
PPP - Big Mac Index
An example of one measure of PPP is the Big Mac Index popularized by The Economist,
which looks at the prices of a Big Mac burger in McDonald's restaurants in different
countries. If a Big Mac costs USD$4 in the U.S. and GBP£3 in Britain, the PPP exchange
rate would be £3 for $4. The Big Mac Index is presumably useful because it is based on a
well-known good whose final price, easily tracked in many countries, includes input costs
from a wide range of sectors in the local economy, such as agricultural commodities
(beef, bread, lettuce, cheese), labor (blue and white collar), advertising, rent and real
estate costs, transportation, etc. The Big Mac Index is inaccurate in certain cases
because of the different market conditions that exist in differing McDonald's locations.
Link >
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PPP
www.courrierinternational.com – 1351 - 2016 29
Poverty is more than money
David Gordon's paper, "Indicators of Poverty & Hunger", for the United
Nations, further defines absolute poverty as the absence of any two of
the following eight basic needs:[2]
Food availability: Body Mass Index must be above 16.
Safe drinking water: Water must not come from solely rivers and
ponds, and must be available nearby (less than 15 minutes' walk each
way).
Sanitation facilities: Toilets or latrines must be accessible in or near
the home.
Health: Treatment must be received for serious illnesses and
pregnancy.
Shelter: Homes must have fewer than four people living in each room.
Floors must not be made of dirt, mud, or clay.
Education: Everyone must attend school or otherwise learn to read.
Information: Everyone must have access to newspapers, radios,
televisions, computers, or telephones at home.
Access to services: This item is undefined by Gordon, but normally
is used to indicate the complete panoply of education, health, legal,
social, and financial (credit) services.
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The Human Poverty (UN)
31
The Human Poverty Index (HPI)
The Human Poverty Index is an indication of the standard
of living in a country, developed by the United Nations
(UN) and can be summarized as "A composite index
measuring deprivations in the three basic dimensions
captured in the human development index — a long and
healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of
living.«
HPI-1 =
P1: Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (times 100)
P2: Adult illiteracy rate
P3: Un-weighted average of population without sustainable
access to an improved water source and children under
weight for age
α: = 3 coeff
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HPI classic
worldmapper.org 2002
33
HPI alternative
The map presented
is equal area
cartograms,
otherwise known
as density-
equalising maps.
The cartogram re-
sizes each territory
according to the
variable being
mapped. Territory
size shows the
proportion of the
world living in
poverty (calculated
by multiplying
population by one worldmapper.org 2002
of two poverty
indices).
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The Human Poverty- HEALTH
Diarrhoea is common amongst children.
In an average two week period, an
estimated 82 million children aged 0-5
years old have diarrhoea. Diarrhoea
varies its severity - some children
recover quickly, a small proportion but
large number die. Access to clean
water and rehydration salts can reduce
prevalence and minimise the impact.
The highest prevalence of diarrhoea
amongst children was recorded in
Niger, where 4 in every 10 children had
diarrhoea in a typical two week period.
Most children in Niger will have many
episodes a year causing general
chronic debility worldmapper.org
35
The Human Poverty- HEALTH
The Health of the
World has improved
…We more in the last 40
years than in the
are living
Life expectancy at birth, years
previous 4000 years!
longer But there are, of
course, still major
health problems in
the World −
especially in
developing countries,
and many of these
are due to inadequate
water supplies and
sanitation
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The Human Poverty- HEALTH
… but
some
shorter
HDR 2005
37
The Human Poverty- HEALTH
The demographic
shock of AIDS
exceeds that of
the first World
War
HDR 2005
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The Human Poverty- HEALTH
Health
inequalities
counteract
wealth
advantages
HDR 2005
39
The Human Poverty- EDUCATION
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Education www.irinnews.org
No money, no school
no school, no money,
41
Education - gender
HDR 2005
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Education - gender
HDR 2005
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North – south
relationships
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Dependency
Dependency theory, states that the
wealthy nations of the world need a
peripheral group of poorer states in
order to remain wealthy..
Raúl Prebisch, argentine economist
45
Dependency
These poor nations provide natural resources,
cheap labor, a destination for obsolete
technology, and markets to the wealthy
nations, without which they could not have the
standard of living they enjoy. First world
nations actively, but not necessarily
consciously, perpetuate a state of dependency
through various policies and initiatives. This
state of dependency is multifaceted, involving
media control, politics, banking and finance,
education, and all aspects of human resource
development. Any attempt by the dependent
nations to resist the influences of dependency
could result in economic sanctions and/or
military invasion and control. This is nowadays
rare and dependency is enforced far more by
the wealthy nations setting the rules of Wikipedia
international trade and commerce. 46
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Economic dominance
"We, politely referred to as 'underdeveloped',
in truth are colonial, semi-colonial or dependent Role of states
countries. We are countries whose economies replaced by
have been distorted by imperialism (read: multinationals
liberalism), which has abnormally developed
those branches of industry or agriculture needed with less
to complement its complex economy. control :
'Underdevelopment', or distorted
development, brings a dangerous specialization
in raw materials, inherent in which is the threat
of hunger for all our peoples. We, the
'underdeveloped', are also those with the single
crop, the single product, the single market. A
single product whose uncertain sale depends on
a single market imposing and fixing conditions.
That is the great formula for imperialist (read:
industrialized countries) economic domination.“
Che Guevara 1961
47
Neo colonialism
The term neo-colonialism was
coined by Ghanaian president
Kwame Nkrumah, to describe the
socio-economic and political control
that can be exercised economically,
linguistically, and culturally,
whereby promotion of the culture of
the neo-colonist country facilitates
the cultural assimilation of the
colonised people and thus opens
the national economy to the
multinational corporations of the
neo-colonial country.
Kwame Nkrumah 1989 Seychelles 1972
48
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CEE economic dominance
49
Historic evolution
Neocolonialism is a term used arguing that existing or past
international economic arrangements created by former
colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of
their former colonies and dependencies after the colonial
independence. neocolonialism implies a form of
contemporary, economic imperialism
50
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Post-colonialism
Case of USA
US bombing list
From “A century of u.s.
military interventions by dr.
Zoltan Grossman”
Korea and China 1950-53
(Korean War) Guatemala
1954 Indonesia 1958 Cuba
1959-1961 Guatemala 1960
Congo 1964 Laos 1964-73
Vietnam 1961-73 Cambodia
1969-70 Guatemala 1967-69
Grenada 1983 Lebanon
1983, 1984 (both Lebanese
and Syrian targets) Libya
1986 El Salvador 1980s
Nicaragua 1980s Iran 1987
Panama 1989 Iraq 1991
(Persian Gulf War) Kuwait
1991 Somalia 1993 Bosnia
1994, 1995 Sudan 1998
Afghanistan 1998 Yugoslavia
1999 Yemen 2002 Iraq Conclusion ? A terrorist is someone who has a bomb but
2003-05 Afghanistan 2001- doesn’t have an air force
2010 ….
51
U.S. neo-colonialism
Following the September
11 attacks the United
States government
increased military aid to
Colombia. In 2003,
98 million dollars GLYPHOSATE (Roundup)
were spent for new = MONSANTO
Pentagon training and
equipment for the
Colombian military.
http://www.monsanto-tribunal.org/ 52
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« Dictatorships »
53
(U.S.) economic colonialism
Free Trade Area of the Americas (NAFTA & FTAA)
no export restrictions for US, but “quality” restrictions for
import to US.
TIPP / TAFTA Transatlantic Trade and Investment
“Partnership” (TTIP)
- elimination of environmental laws
- elimination of trade union restrictions
- role of national regulation replaced by TIPP and
private courts
NAFTA
The role of states replaced by multinationals with less
control :
- Coca Cola (trade union oppression …
- Barrick (Mining, desrespect of env. laws …)
- Monsanto (“Emergency help” for Haiti 2010 ….)
54
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Transatlantic Trade and Investment
“Partnership”
Consequence of “TIPP”
https://www.monde-
diplomatique.fr/carnet/201
5-06-11-ttip-parlement-
europeen
https://www.tni.org/files/download/vattenfall-icsid-case_oct2013.pdf
A study of the Global Development and
Environment Institute at Tufts University
NAFTA
argues that the TTIP would result in the loss of
600,000 European jobs, a net decline in EU
exports, falling GDPs for EU member states and
a reduction in Europeans’ personal income.
http://ase.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/wp/14-03CapaldoTTIP.pdf
55
Aide
économique
Hassan II
Gbagbo cacao
Eyadéma phosphates
Bia wood
Bongo petrol
Nguesso mining
56
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Aide militaire :
France
French bombing list
French military
presence in
Africa
57
$y$tème 1 : Bypass, exemple Elf-Afrique
parties
politiques
actionnaires
Biens
mal acquis
Rois,
présidents et
dictateurs
Caisse
3% du
brut
Droits
d’exploi
-tation
Gestionnaire
étatique
prévente
Investis-
sement
58
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$y$tème 2 : retro commission
(exemple Karachi)
Les rétro-
commissions
sont un produit
dérivé des
«commission»,
vulgairement
appelés pots-
de-vin
59
From French colonialism to French neo-
liberalism France
60
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Long life management
= guarantee of profits
Paul Biya
(Cameroun)
Omar Bongo
(Gabon)
Sassou Nguesso
(Congo)
Joseph Kabila
(Autre Congo?)
Idris Deby
(Tchad)
Obiang Nguema
(Guinée Equ.)
Blaise Compaoré
X
(Burkina Faso)
X
Laurent Gbagbo
(Côte d'Ivoire)
Faure Eyadéma
(Togo)
Kadaffi
X
(Libye)
Ismael Omar Guelleh
(Djibouti)
etc…
61
Neo-colonialism = destabilisation
“Bad”
management,
system breaks
Thomas SANKARA, Panafrican socialist, eliminated by his
friend Blaise Compaoré, in1987 with benediction of French
socialist government. The latter was exfiltered by French
military during popular upraise in 2014.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Sankara 62
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Resumed : North a bad example
for the South
France
- 1961 French police shot more than 30 peaceful protesters in the
center of Paris and thrown their bodies in the river Seine, and
interned several thousands of Algerians civilians in football stadiums
(cf Pinochet)
- 2010 -2015 France bombing Libya, Mali, Syria …
USA
- After the 11 September bombing of the twin tours the US kidnap,
with active collaboration of the European countries, citizens over the
whole world supposed to be terrorists and torture them in
Guantanamo (Cuban territory occupied by the US).
- In 2003 US attack Iraq to support their war industry and to get free
access to Iraqi oil. Cost for the US tax payer >1 000 000 000 000
dollar (Wiki)
Cost for Iraq > 80 000 civilian death
63
En resumé
Développé En développement
(exemple « France ») (exemple Monde)
Indépendance colonisation Algérie etc., Sénégal ->Casamance, Maroc ->
répression des mouvement Sahara Ouest, Chine ->Tibet, Inde
territoriale indépendantistes DOM-TOM … ->Cachemire, Indonésie -< Timor
Corruption Affaires : Elf, Tiberi, Woerth- Bien mal acquis
Bettencourt, Karachi, Djibouti ..
politique
Démocratie Garde à vue, fichier MENS « présidence père en fils » (Bongo,
pour les ROMS, non séparation Eydema, etc.), répression et
des pouvoirs, abus policiers, assassinat des opposants
affaire Tarnac, Sivens, cumul politiques, modifications des
des mandats, maires à vie … constitutions pour mandant ad
eternam
Environnement Erica, AZF, Aéroport Nantes, Bhopal, Probo Koala, Barrick, “dirty
Autoroute Réunion etc. diesel” …
64
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Governance
Quel models de societé veut-on ?
politiques
Capital,
Ressource moyens de
naturelles production
population
police et
armée
Relations diverses
entre la population
et le pouvoir. Quelle
place pour les
représentants de la
société civile ?
66
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Development (environment)
Sustainable development, is a development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs."
Under the principles of the United Nations Charter the
Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties
on sustainable development, including economic
development, social development and environmental
protection. Broadly defined, sustainable development is
a systems approach to growth and development and to
manage natural, produced, and social capital for the
welfare of their own and future generations. (Brundtland
’87)
67
Democracy
Democracy is a form of government in
which all eligible citizens are meant
to participate equally – either directly
or, through elected representatives,
indirectly – in the proposal,
development and establishment of
the laws by which their society is
run.
68
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Democracy
France =7.9 (n°27) 69
Démocratie en France
- Garde à vu des journalistes
- Etat de d’urgence (Hollande)
- Couvre feu (Sarkozy)
- Contrôle aux facies
- Usage non justifié de force par la police
- 5 cas de perte de vue après usage inapproprié de flash ball
- des migrants étouffés dans un avion de ligne
- des migrants étouffés pendant contrôle d’identité
- des manifestants tués avec un grenade offensive
Aucun agent de police n’a été condamné pour l’usage inapproprié de
force depuis 10 ans
MAIS un citoyen peut finir avec prison ferme s’il s’oppose verbalement
aux agissement de la police
70
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Accès information
France n° 37 !
71
Censure Internet
France n° 37 !
72
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Censure Internet
France n° 37 !
73
https://corporateeurope.org/power-lobbies/2016/02/ep-water-group
Lobbying http://corporateeurope.org/financial-lobby/2014/04/fire-power-financial-lobby
74
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Lobbying
http://archive.corporateeurope.org
/docs/turning-on-the-taps.pdf
75
Corruption
http://transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results 76
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Arms industry
In 2002 the United States was
the largest military spender,
spending almost 9 times more
than the second biggest
spender, Japan. In that year
the United States spent
US$353 billion; 45% of all
state military spending
worldwide.
77
Arms industry
78
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Drug trade
https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.3_The_globa_cocaine_market.pdf
79
Land expropriation
Grileiro é um termo que designa quem
falsifica documentos para, de forma ilegal,
tornar-se dono por direito de terras devolutas
ou de terceiros ou ainda quem está na posse
ilegal de prédios ou prédios indivisos, por meio
de documentos falsificados.
80
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Food security
81
Biofuels – food speculation
Banks are earning huge profits from betting on food prices in
unregulated financial markets. This creates instability and pushes up
global food prices, leaving millions going hungry and facing deeper
poverty.
82
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Development “aid”
83
Development aid and/or
military spendings
www.globalpolicy.org/
84
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Development aid
Tied aid is foreign aid that must
be spent in the country providing
the aid (the donor country)
Development aid = business
85
Financing public services
Low-HDI countries in
conflict in 2002 spent
on average 3.7% of
GDP on their militaries
but only 2.4% on
health
86
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Market place
Perverse graduation in tariffs against the
poorest countries
87
Market place – unfair trade
SUGAR
Subsidized EU sugar lower export
prices by a third, causing looses for
Brazil ($494m), South Africa
($151m) and Thailand ($60m)
COTTON
In 2001 U.S. cotton subsidies cost
Burkina Faso and Mali 1%-3% of
their GDP
Fall in cotton prices increased
Benin’s poverty rate from 37% to
59% in 2001-02
88
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Estats vs Multinacionales
FAMGA (Facebook, Apple, Microsoft,
Google, Amazon) is eating the world
89
Autres voies possibles
Vers une gouvernance plus équitable
https://www.lesrequins.org
OPED2018 MS 45ENPC SGE SAGE 24/05/2018
COOP décentralisée
La coopération décentralisée englobe toutes les
relations d'amitié, de jumelage ou de partenariat
nouées entre les collectivités locales d'un pays et les
collectivités équivalentes d'autres pays. Plus
généralement, on y inclut différentes formes
d'assistance ou d'échanges d'expériences avec des
structures publiques locales étrangères pour que
ces expatriés établissent des contacts privilégiés
avec les collectivités territoriales qui s'y impliquent.
Dans un contexte où la coopération
gouvernementale et la coopération multilatérale sont
soumises à des critiques sévères de la part d'acteurs
non- gouvernementaux, qui les soupçonnent de
favoriser des intérêts privés importants (banques,
grandes entreprises du Nord), la coopération
décentralisée représente une forme de coopération
plus horizontale, qui correspond mieux à une
nouvelle vision de la gouvernance et notamment
d'une Europe des régions. 91
Budget participatif
92
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Consom‘ « Le commerce équitable est un partenariat
commercial fondé sur le dialogue, la
acteurs transparence et le respect, dont l’objectif est
de parvenir à une plus grande équité dans le
commerce mondial. Il contribue au
développement durable en offrant de
meilleures conditions commerciales et en
garantissant les droits des producteurs et
des travailleurs marginalisés, tout
particulièrement au Sud de la planète.
• Créer des opportunités pour les producteurs
qui sont économiquement en situation de
désavantage.
• La transparence et la crédibilité
• La capacité individuelle.
• Promouvoir le commerce équitable.
• Le paiement d'un prix juste..
• Égalité entre les sexes.
• Les conditions de travail.
• Le travail des enfants.
• L'environnement.
• Les relations de commerce.
93
Circuits courts
On qualifie généralement de
circuit court le circuit de
distribution dans lequel
intervient au maximum un
intermédiaire entre le
producteur et le
consommateur.
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Information plurielle
Choix des sources
d’information: sources
politiquement, financièrement
et idéologiquement
indépendantes
95
Devenir acteur du changement
http://yeslab.org/projects
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Territoires alternatives
– ZAD, Zone A Défendre
– Christina Copenhagen, Quartier autogéré:
– Marinaleda Andalusie, Ville « libre » :
– Uruguay, legalisation C. sativa
– Etc.
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L'Île aux fleurs
L'Île aux fleurs (1989, Brésil) un film de Jorge Furtado
http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x13fp_ile-aux-fleurs_creation
La tomate, plantée par Monsieur Suzuki, échangée contre de
l'argent avec le supermarché, échangée contre l'argent que
Madame Anete a échangé contre des parfums extraits des
fleurs, refusée pour la sauce du porc, jetée aux ordures et
refusée par les porcs comme aliment, est maintenant disponible
pour les êtres humains de l'Ile aux fleurs.
Ce qui place les êtres humains après les porcs dans la priorité de
choix des aliments, c'est le fait de n'avoir ni argent, ni
propriétaire.
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References
http://hdr.undp.org/fr
http://en.unesco.org/wssr2016
https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm
http://www.courrierinternational.com
http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/
https://fr.wikipedia.org
http://www.lemonde.fr/
https://www.mediapart.fr/
https://rsf.org
https://france.attac.org/
https://transparency-france.org/
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OPED2018 MS 50Vous pouvez aussi lire
