EDin - Association Comenius
←
→
Transcription du contenu de la page
Si votre navigateur ne rend pas la page correctement, lisez s'il vous plaît le contenu de la page ci-dessous
27
2018
DE in
ISSN: 2033-4443
Journal de l’Association Comenius
Journal of the Comenius Association
no 27 – september – 2018
www.associationcomenius.org
Journal de l’Association Comenius
Journal of the Comenius Association
no 27 – september – 2018
Guest Editors
George Camacho
Instituto Politécnico de Santarém
Escola Superior de Educação de Santarém
Responsible Editors
Board of the Comenius Association,
Represented by Geneviève Laloy, President
Language Editors
Chantal Muller
Haute École Namur-Liège-Luxembourg
Geneviève Laloy
Haute École Léonard deVinci
George Camacho
Instituto Politécnico de Santarém
Layout
Miguel Lourenço
miguelourenco_3@hotmail.com
The views expressed in this journal are the sole
responsibility of the individual authors.
ISSN 2033-4443
journal de l’
association Comenius Journal
comenius September 2018
Editorial 2
Perspectives : Democracy in Education 4
- Education, citizenship and democratic agency: a research and policy agenda 5
- Democracy and education 8
- Teaching democracy is experiencing democracy - profession didactics in social sciences 14
- Museum Education and Democracy 17
- Changes in the attitudes of disadvantageous families due to the tale reading project MesÉd 19
- Supporting motherhood in Arab migrant women 22
Visions and Practices 25
- Action research on the fulfilment of my basic needs as a teacher trainer 26
- Make. Think. Tinkering 29
- La mobilité estudiantine: une réponse aux défis de l’altérité? 31
- Tous les élèves apprennent et ont du plaisir en éducation physique 35
- Exchangring knowledge in a small scale international project 38
- Leaving the table 41
Mobility Experiences 44
- Should erasmus be mandatory? 45
- In between screen time and real time 48
- Can online gaming contribute to learning a language? 51
- Learning with all senses 54
- Réaliser des activités dites à risques avec les élèves: trop dangereux en Norvège ou trop protecteur en Belgique? 56
Announcements and Upcoming Events 61
- International Weeks 61
- Staff Weeks 61
- Council of Europe 61
- Projects 61
- Meetings 61
Contributors 62
Partner Institutions 66
Comenius Journal
September 2018 1
Editorial
Contemporary societies have some impor- community level, should promote the de-
tant challenges that deserve attention both velopment of individual skills at the service
on the part of the citizens and on the part of the community, both at the professional
of the political powers, being responsible level and at the level of active citizenship.
for ensuring the well-being of their respec- The main function of the school is not to
tive societies. The elements at stake are train professionals but to train citizens able
the following: globalization, in its multiple to understand their rights and duties in a
dimensions; migration and the challenges democratic society.
George Camacho of multiculturalism; the large urban con-
centrations versus the demographic vacu- Education for citizenship should not only
Assistant Professor ums; the management of natural resources be a programmatic content nor, much less,
Santarém Higher School of Education and environmental impacts, in particular a curricular subject, education for citizen-
Santarém Polytechnic Institute in terms of climate; the organization of so- ship should be, first and mainly, a daily life
Santarém, Portugal cietal policies and the risks for democracy. practice in the educational community,
The economic,financial and social crises inside and outside the physical space of
Member of the Board of Management have created a environment of uncertainty the school . The school should be open to
Comenius Association favourable to the emergence of populism, the community, involving all the partners
nationalism and extremism that have un- and resources of its territory, but also pro-
Guest Editor dermined the principles of a democratic moting exchanges with distant communi-
and inclusive society. ties and territories, from an intercultural
perspective. Education for democratic
Democracy is based on principles of free- citizenship should enhance the respect for
dom, equity, governance and sustainabili- human rights, cultural dignity and democ-
ty. Individual liberty, in a state of law, must racy; should promote attitudes of toler-
be a constitutional guarantee; equity must ance, solidarity and responsibility; should
ensure that all citizens have access to the develop a comprehensive and critical
necessary resources for their active par- knowledge about oneself, about the others
ticipation in society and also that they are and about the various social dimensions
adequately represented in the various so- (history, economy, politics, communica-
cio-political spheres; governance must be tion, technological development, territory
based on transparency, justice and solidar- and sustainability, etc.); should empower
ity; sustainability implies that the equality citizens for analysis and critical thinking,
of rights is not only the right to vote but for conflict resolution and problem solv-
also that there is more space for inclusion ing, for autonomy and teamwork.
and the social and territorial cohesion. De-
mocracy implies a permanent and active The Comenius Association is fully com-
participation of all citizens, presupposing mitted to this perspective and most likely
a permanent debate of ideas, in which the has a role to play in citizenship education
divergence of opinions or perspectives is and the development of democratic values
not understood as a barrier but as a factor in schools and therefore in teacher train-
of enrichment and closeness. ing. Indeed, it is through the mobility of
our students and staff, our intercultural
Considering the challenges that demo- meetings, our international projects, our
cratic systems face in contemporary soci- publications, our collective research, that
eties, educational systems globally and the the question of democracy in school can
school in particular, as a training space, be shared. , lived, questioned. A further
have a great responsibility in the field of challenge that the Comenius Association
citizenship education. The school, be- wishes to meet more than ever in the cur-
sides ensuring the construction of collec- rent situation, with determination and op-
tive identities, in particular at national and timism.
2 Comenius Journal
September 2018
Editorial
Les sociétés contemporaines ont des dé- ticulier, en tant qu’espace de formation, au travers de la mobilité de nos étudiants
fis importants qui méritent une attention ont une grande responsabilité dans le do- et du personnel, de nos rencontres inter-
particulière de la part des citoyens et des maine de l’éducation à la citoyenneté. En culturelles, de nos projets internationaux,
pouvoirs politiques, ces derniers étant plus d’assurer la formation d’identités col- de nos publications, de nos recherches col-
responsables de veiller au bien-être de leurs lectives, en particulier au niveau national et lectives, que la question de la démocratie
sociétés respectives. Les enjeux sont div- communautaire, l’école devrait promouvoir à l’école peut être partagée, vécue, ques-
ers : la mondialisation, dans ses multiples le développement de compétences individu- tionnée. Un défi de plus que l’Association
dimensions; la migration et les défis du elles au service de la communauté, tant au Comenius souhaite relever plus que jamais
multiculturalisme; les grandes concentra- niveau professionnel qu’au niveau de la ci- dans la conjoncture actuelle, avec détermi-
tions urbaines par rapport aux vides dé- toyenneté active. La fonction principale de nation et optimisme.
mographiques; la gestion des ressources l’école n’est pas de former des profession-
naturelles et les impacts environnemen- nels, mais de former des citoyens capables
taux, notamment en termes de climat; de comprendre leurs droits et leurs devoirs
l’organisation politique des sociétés et dans une société démocratique.
les risques pour la démocratie. Les crises
économiques, financières et sociales ont L’éducation à la citoyenneté ne devrait pas
créé un climat d’incertitude favorable à être seulement un autre contenu du pro-
l’émergence du populisme, du nation- gramme ou, encore moins, une autre dis-
alisme et de l’extrémisme qui ont remis cipline curriculaire, l’éducation à la citoy-
en question les principes d’une société enneté doit être, d’abord, une expérience
démocratique et inclusive. quotidienne dans la communauté éduca-
tive, à l’intérieur et en dehors des murs de
La démocratie est basée sur les principes l’école . L’école doit être ouverte à la com-
de liberté, d’équité, de gouvernance et de munauté, en impliquant tous les partenaires
durabilité. La liberté individuelle, dans un et toutes les ressources de son territoire,
état de droit, doit être une garantie consti- mais également en favorisant les échanges
tutionnelle; l’équité doit garantir que tous avec des communautés et des territoires
les citoyens ont accès aux ressources néces- éloignés, dans une perspective interculturel-
saires à leur participation active à la so- le. L’éducation à la citoyenneté démocra-
ciété et qu’ils sont représentés de manière tique devrait renforcer le respect des droits
adéquate dans les différentes sphères so- de l’homme, de la dignité culturelle et de
ciopolitiques; la gouvernance doit être la démocratie; promouvoir des attitudes de
fondée sur la transparence, la justice et tolérance, de solidarité et de responsabilité;
la solidarité; la durabilité implique que devrait développer une connaissance com-
l’égalité des droits ne soit pas seulement le plète et critique de soi-même, des autres et
droit de vote, mais plutôt l’expansion des des différentes dimensions sociales (histo-
espaces d’inclusion et de cohésion sociale rique, économique, politique, communica-
et territoriale. La démocratie implique une tion, développement technologique, terri-
participation active permanente de tous toire et durabilité, etc.); devrait renforcer la
les citoyens, présupposant un débat per- capacité des citoyens d’analyser et de penser
manent d’idées, dans lequel la divergence de manière critique, de résoudre les conflits
d’opinions ou de perspectives n’est pas et de résoudre les problèmes, d’être auto-
comprise comme un obstacle mais comme nomes et de travailler en équipe.
un facteur d’enrichissement et de rap-
prochement. L’Association Comenius s’inscrit pleine-
ment dans cette perspective et a très proba-
Considérant les défis auxquels les systèmes blement un rôle à jouer dans l’éducation à la
démocratiques sont confrontées dans les citoyenneté et le développement des valeurs GEORGE CAMACHO
sociétés contemporaines, les systèmes édu- démocratiques dans les écoles et donc dans
catifs au niveau général et l’école en par- la formation des enseignants. En effet, c’est
Comenius Journal
September 2018 3
in Education
Democracy
Perspectives:
Perspectives: Democracy In Education
4 Comenius Journal
September 2018
Perspectives: Democracy in Education
Education, citizenship and
democratic agency: a research
and policy agenda
ABSTRACT
Two main trends can be identified with regard to the current debate on democracy and the way
citizenship education can contribute to the development of a more inclusive society in Europe. The
first reflects the concerns about the current degree of participation of young people in the political
arena, whereas the second is more focused on the issue of ensuring social integration and cohesion.
This paper highlights how citizenship cannot be taught as the umpteenth additional content to
Fabio Dovigo the usual curricular programmes, but should be made of active practices where young people
can discover how comparing different values and opinions can lead to collective action towards
Professor of Educational Research Methods improving inclusion for all.
Department of Human and Social Sciences
University of Bergamo RÉSUMÉ
Italy
Bergamo, Italy Deux tendances principales sont identifiabless en ce qui concerne le débat sur la démocratie et la
manière dont l’éducation à la citoyenneté peut contribuer au développement d’une société plus
inclusive en Europe. La première reflète l’inquiétude sur le degré de participation des jeunes dans la
vie politique. Quant à la deuxième, elle est plutôt centrée sur la question d’assurer une intégration
et une cohésion sociale. Cet article met en exergue le fait que la citoyenneté ne peut être enseignée
comme un énième contenu dans le programme habituel, mais devrait être constituée de pratiques
actives au travers desquelles les jeunes découvrent comment le fait de comparer différentes
valeurs et opinions peut amener à une action collective vers une plus grande inclusion pour tous.
“Tunc tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet.
It is your concern when your neighbor’s house is on fire.”
Citizenship as an ongoing educational .
practice
The Horace’s warning is still going as citizenship we should be able to cultivate
strong as ever today, as democracy and civ- through education.
il rights are endangered in many ways. This
explains why in the last few years there has To this aim, two main trends can be identi-
been a global revival of interest in the re- fied. The first relates to the concerns about
lationship between democratic citizenship the current degree of participation of youth
and education, both from policy makers in the political arena, whereas the second
and educators. Whereas in established de- is more focused on the issue of ensuring
mocracies the emphasis has been on how social integration and cohesion (Holden
to strengthen democratic practices, new, and Minty, 2011; Hoskins et al., 2012).
emerging democracies have especially The role of young people in this process
worked on developing education as a lever is perceived as particularly relevant. Seeing
to the promotion of democratic environ- them as the citizens of the future, Euro-
ment (Banks, 2005; Callan, 1997). This pean Union and governments have largely
effort raises important questions about invested on programs addressed to sustain
the kind of democracy we want and the the political engagement of youth, and citi-
Comenius Journal
September 2018 5
Perspectives: Democracy in Education
zenship education has been at the centre fined in abstract terms, as a list of features regardless of students agency. Nor it can
of this agenda (European Commission, to be acquired more than an interactive be limited to the classes attended at school
1996, 2012; European Parliament and the and participative process. As a conse- because, as we noted, young people have
Council of the European Union, 2006). quence, documents and reports tend to to deal everyday with moral questions
Educational institutions have conse- underline the technical features of teach- and practical quandaries about democ-
quently been invited to include citizenship ing democracy in terms of methods and racy that raise from their participation
education in the formal curriculum (Eu- sequences of steps, instead of supporting on social activities outside school (Ben-
rydice. (2012a, 2012b). However, teaching the nurturing of collective debate and nett and Segerberg, 2013; Ross, 2015).
democracy in school, although important, critical thinking as pivotal requirements
represents only a partial answer to the for ensuring democracy. Citizenship is Moreover, the individual perspective pro-
question of raising the level of awareness of not just an educational outcome as oth- posed by the neo-liberal approach over-
young generations towards the importance ers, it is not a permanent skill acquired looks the way economic and sociocultural
of citizenship as a pillar of democratic life. once and for all. It is an ongoing practice factors affect the ability of young people
that needs to be sustained on the public to fully take on the citizenship role society
Accordingly, we should pay attention not space through continuous conversation is expecting from them. In most countries
only to the way citizenship can be effec- about values, ethical dilemmas, and prac- young people are currently facing an in-
tively taught in school, but also on the tical decisions. It is the way democratic creasing deterioration of social rights, es-
manifold ways young people can improve agency is constantly sustained and incor- pecially with regard to education and em-
their attentiveness to the development of porated as a habit through a collective ployment. The promise of education for all
democratic process by learning from ac- and critical process of discussing public and job security has been wiped out in the
tual practices both inside school and in and shared issues. name of ambiguous catchwords as ‘flex-
the wider surrounding environment, as a ibility’ and ‘customer satisfaction’ (Furedi,
mean to expand their sense of community. Putting values into practice 2009). As a result, full access to citizen-
This implies to overcome a perspective of ship has been indefinitely postponed, as
citizenship education based on an indi- If we conceive citizenship education as youngsters are systematically receiving a
vidual perspective, which overemphasize an endless process of building a culture double negative message: 1) insecurity is a
personal freedom to the detriment of par- of participation, it is hard to continue permanent and desirable condition of life;
ticipation and collaboration (Bernstein, to see young people just as citizens “to 2) all the negative consequences related to
1996). “Learning” citizenship is not just be”, imperfect subjects on the move to- this condition are only their fault. Face to
the outcome of an abstract, inner process, wards the actual status of citizenship this situation, it doesn’t come as a surprise
but is also made of active practices where they will acquire only in their adult- that a large portion of young people don’t
youngsters can discover how comparing hood. Conversely, we need to acknowl- see the point of engaging in the citizen-
different values and opinions can lead to edge the many ways youngsters are al- ship arena or accept more responsibilities
collective action towards improving inclu- ready involved into everyday events and towards the community, as disengagement
sion for all. activities that implies exchanging views is a natural by-product of such a mes-
and decision-making, inside and outside sage (Nussbaum, Craven, 2010). Blam-
Even though educational institutions play school, where values have not just to be ing young people for not being eager to
a key role in dealing with this endeavour cited, but also put into practice. Through be involved into the political debate while
of giving systematically voice to young this experience they go beyond being they are struggling to find an answer to
people as a way of build their civic engage- taught about democracy as a concept, basic questions about their life – access-
ment, this challenge goes beyond school they gradually acquire an active role as ing quality education, looking for a decent
and teachers’ intervention. This becomes citizens through a collective learning-by- job, living an independent life – is again a
especially apparent as we analyse the way doing process (Apple and Beane, 1999). subtle way of pushing them back on a per-
European documents usually refer to citi- manent adolescent condition (Ball, 2017).
zenship as a question of “readiness” of Thirdly, reducing citizenship education
young people that should be “prepared” to to a matter of teaching strategies seems to Considering these circumstances, we need
democracy. This view is quite problematic: imply that there is ‘one best way’ to teach to find new research approaches as well
first of all, as we noted, this interpretation it and that evidence provided by research as educational strategies to effectively de-
is based on an individual perspective that will enable us to identify what strategies velop initiatives aimed to improve citizen-
adopts the neo-liberal line of thinking, ac- will guarantee ‘excellence’ in this field. Re- ship education and democratic agency, ex-
cording to which citizenship is basically an gardless of the today ubiquitous and very panding our ability to detect and ease the
individual disposition, that is a personal questionable use of the term “excellence”, multiple ways in which young people learn
skill that each one should acquire by ab- this view overlooks the fact that teaching about democracy and participation within
sorbing a right amount of knowledge and effectiveness highly depends on learning, their life context (Davies, 2006) This can
proper behaviour (Biesta, 2013). There- that is on the ability of students to elabo- be achieved by adopting the idea of “em-
fore, school is appointed to ensure the pro- rate and combine knowledge with their bodied agency on citizenship” as a genera-
duction of good citizens the same way it own experience. So learning, especially tive notion that help understand and value
provides reading, writing, and math skills. as for citizenship, cannot be reduced to youngsters approach to the question. Em-
Secondly, “good citizenship” is usually de- a neutral and automatic activity working bodied agency on citizenship on the one
6 Comenius Journal
September 2018
Perspectives: Democracy in Education
hand reflects the way young people deal ting only temporary works. These topics need to memorise as an additional part
everyday with the challenge of having a say are not part of the usual teaching pro- of their curriculum. Citizenship is more
about decisions that will have an impact grams on citizenship, but they can offer than an idea, is a living performance
on their life, and the way they are included useful insights for a discussion on what made possible by supporting a continu-
in or excluded from the decision-making democracy means today and the practi- ous debate and collective practices. Sec-
process. On the other, this notion helps us cal consequences of embracing one point ondly, critical lessons on democracy can
assess the level of empowerment that dif- of view or another on the life of people. emerge from a close investigation of the
ferent formal and informal educational en- way young people currently struggle to
vironments are able to generate in order to In conclusion, understanding citizenship assert their own basic rights in the educa-
support youth’s active participation. Young education as a matter of learning as much tional, economic, and social environment.
people life in school and out of the school as teaching requires to reconsider the cur- Such an approach would provide the basis
is scattered with practical questions about, rent European research and policy agen- for a much deeper understanding of, and
for example, peers that are leaving school da. First of all, we cannot take the notion engagement with, democratic citizenship
early, have to drop university to support of citizenship for granted, as a set of pre- as a personal and collective commitment.
their family, or are spending years in get- defined principles that young people just
FABIO D OVIGO
References
Apple, M. W., and Beane, J. A. (eds) (1999). Democratic Schools: Lessons from the Chalk Face. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Ball, S. J. (2017). The education debate. Bristol: Policy Press.
Banks, J. et al. (2005). Democracy and Diversity: Principles and Concepts for Educating Citizens in a Global Age. Seattle: Center for Multicultural Education.
Bennett, L., and Segerberg, A. (2013). The logic of connective action: Digital media and the personalization of contentious politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bernstein, B. (1996). Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research, Critique. London: Taylor & Francis.
Biesta, G.J.J. (2013). Learning in public places: Civic learning for the twenty-first century. In G.J.J. Biesta, M. de Bie, and D. Wildemeersch (eds), Civic learning, democratic citizenship and the
public sphere, 1–11. Dordrecht: Springer.
Callan, E. (1997). Creating Citizens: Political Education and Liberal Democracy. Oxford: Clarendon.
Davies, L. (2006), Global citizenship: abstraction or framework for action? Educational Review. 58 (1), 5–25.
European Commission (1996). Study group on education and training: Report accomplishing Europe through education and training. Luxembourg: office for official Publications of the European
Communities.
European Commission (2012). Directorate-General for and Innovation Socio-economic Sciences and Humanities. The Development of European Identity/Identities: Unfinished Business A Policy \
Review. Brussels: European Commission.
European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2006). Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competences for Life- long Learning [official
Journal L 394 of 30.12.2006].
Eurydice. (2012a). Citizenship education in Europe. Brussels: Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency.
Eurydice. (2012b). Main reforms in citizenship education since 2005. Brussels: Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency.
Furedi, F. (2009). Wasted. Why education isn’t educating. New York: Continuum.
Holden, C., and Minty, S. (2011). Going global: Young Europeans’ aspirations and actions for the future. Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 6(2), 123–137.
Hoskins, B., et al. (2012). Analytic Report: Participatory citizenship in the European Union, Institute of Education report for EU. Southampton: Southampton University.
Nussbaum, M.C., Craven, M. (2010). Not for profit:Why democracy needs the humanities. Vol. 2. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ross, A. (2015). Understanding the construction of identities by young New Europeans: Kaleidoscopic selves. London: Routledge.
Comenius Journal
September 2018 7
Perspectives: Democracy in Education
Democracy and education
RÉSUMÉ
La démocratie selon Aristote est une forme de gouvernement dans laquelle le pouvoir est exercé par
la partie pauvre et non instruite du peuple, dénommée le « démos ». Cependant, selon le point de
vue de l’approche chrétienne, le « démos » est une unité organique, et l’enseignement est l’une des
Mária Both fonctions chargées de soutenir cette unité. En conséquence, la mission de l’enseignement est double
: d’une part de transmettre les traditions qui maintiennent unie la communauté, d’autre part de
College Associate Professor promouvoir le développement des capacités individuelles au service de la communauté. Les traditions
Apor Vilmos Catholic College et les compétences individuelles ont une racine commune qui est la démocratie du savoir et la culture
Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Science partagée. Ceci s’appuie sur des paradigmes qui se complètent mais sont aussi souvent en conflits.
and Information Technology
Vác, Hungary Dans cet article nous présentons l’application concrète de ce principe dans le programme de deux
écoles différentes, au lycée des piaristes de Vác, où les élèves, par le moyen d’un jeu de rôle dans
László Csorba F. une scène historique, ont pu comparer les points de vue divergents et contradictoires des chercheurs.
Piarist Grammar School , Vác
Senior Research Fellow Greek ideal and the current state
Hungarian Institute of Educational
Research and Development, Budapest The notion of democracy originating the official opinion leaders (demagogues).
Eszterházy Károly University from the ancient times is connected to the This system let room for deception even
of Applied Sciences Greek poleis. According to Aristotle man in its ancient form and could indeed drift
Eger, Hungary is a political animal (Zoon politikon), our towards oligarchy or tyranny. To pre-
existence as humans may only become vent this from happening, Aristotle held
real in communities. The ideal state of a the role of education crucial (Aristotle).
community is the polis, which is capable
of self-preservation (autarchia). In the How does the Greek problem issue appear
favourable forms of government those in as part of today’s pedagogy and politics?
power seek the survival of the polis. Such A recurring issue is the meaning and con-
forms of government are the monarchy tent of common literacy. If ’common’ means
(kingdom), aristocracy (the power of the ’community-creating’ and ’community
wealthiest and worthy few) and the politeia sustaining’ then this literacy should be rel-
or timocracy (the power of a broader mid- evant and shared by all (sheding light on
dle-class, in which the virtuous, wealthy the whole community’s as well as the indi-
and thus respected citizens and their con- viduals’ own opportunities), in contrast to
nections are determinate). In a malformed a skill shared by a certain group of people.
government a person’s or a smaller group’s However, there are many, partly overlap-
interests are put before the good of the ping, and partly inclusive communities,
polis. Such forms of governments are tyr- partly connected like a net, partly built up
anny, oligarchy and democracy. Despite its in a hierarchy, partly with cultural, politi-
faults Aristotle appreciates democracy for cal, linguistic or religious boundaries. The
he believes that reasoning, the open colla- direct decision making has been replaced
tion of many opposing arguments, is more by current representative democracies,
likely to lead to the correct solution rather which – as Cartledge remarks – would be
than personal decisions. The main prob- called oligarchy by an ancient citizen for
lem is that the majority of the demos are the modern demos cannot decide neither
poor and uneducated. They are masters on war, nor on the budget, and, generally
of their professions but in issues concern- speaking, all major issues are dealt with
ing the whole of the polis are uninformed and controlled by a small group of people
and thus might be easily manipulated by (Cartledge, 2016) Furthermore, not only
8 Comenius Journal
September 2018Perspectives: Democracy in Education
the poleis’, but also the states’ autarchy is The disfigured versions of the ’individual by another argument. (Szabó, ) However,
torn to shreds – essential political and eco- body’ metaphor have been widely used reasoning might only have a result, if there
nomic decisions are made by international throughout history to legitimise the least is at least one statement (premise) that
organizations and scientific bodies that the democratic systems (the Jacobite ’raison both parties accept without the need for
demos or even the states have no control d’état’, the ’internationalism’ of the Soviet proving it. On this basis proving is possible
over. In parallel to such global-oligarchy dictatorship) as well as a counter-reaction in an indirect way, which was favoured by
tendencies, the national and local auton- supporting the denial of the community the Greeks. By doing so, it is being proved
omy aspirations grow simultaniously. This ethos and an extremely liberal, atomized that an argument which opposes mine
struggle echoes in the education system, society-image. These distortions, how- leads to self-contradiction, collides with
where the centralized or decentralized ever, do not question the essence of Saint the premises accepted by both of us and so
management mirrors the interests and Paul’s message; the superiority of the it is to be rejected – and thus I am, or more
power of their maintainer. In this situation Whole over the Part, but at the same time likely my reasons are right. (Or my oppo-
a relevant ’common literacy’ cannot be the responsibility of the Whole in sustain- nent’s reasons, but still, reasons.) The de-
based on a strict canon, nor a bare com- ing the partial autonomy of its own parts. bates thus made reasonable are as power-
petency list deprived of the communitiy’s ful as the myths but may be the fundament
traditions. It could be defined as a tool Many different models have been devel- for an altogether different community, the
that is closely connected to the identity oped in order to analyse the part-whole system of the accepted premises in an ide-
of the community (in a broader sense, the relationship and the organizational levels. al case could lead to the consensus of the
partial autarchy of a polis) that maintains What these models share in common is parties in the original meaning of the word
the school and at the same time provides that the partial autonomy of the embedded too (con-sensus, or common-seeing, com-
interoperability among certain communi- levels is correlated with the stability of the mon sense). The (natural) sciences and
ties including the understanding of the system and the diversity of the elements re- the fields of mathematics (e.g. Elements by
knowledge and skills of professionals to sponsible for this stability (King and Pimm, Euklides) were founded with the aspira-
an extent that would make their purpose, 1983). Thus, democracy (timocracy) is not tion that the unique, incidental premises
achievements and methods accessible the equality of the parts but the acceptance might be replaced by the coherent, con-
both on a community and individual level. of the diversity of the parts. The spiritual tradiction-free system(s) of axioms and
conceptualisation of the hierarchical sys- postulates. By accepting this, the debate
The metaphor of the tems seems vital for many contemporary partner need not be physically present, his
invisible body scholars, e.g. Dewey and Freire. „The de- or her arguments could be alive and effec-
fining elements of spirituality are an engage- tive even after his or her death. The debate
The ancient Hellenistic philosophers of- ment in a search for purpose and meaning; may thus escape time and space, the op-
ten compared the world to the order of an orientation of faith in regard to some- ponent may transform into an inner voice,
the healthy body; interpreting the former thing larger than oneself (including, but the conversation may turn into a ’one-per-
as Macrocosmos and the latter as Micro- not limited to, community); a capacity for son dialogue’ or a thread. Consequently,
cosmos. The cosmic order is manifested self-aware consciousness”. (Lingley, 2016) the traditions and innovations of the com-
through the vast variety of the parts and munity, their debates and unsolved prob-
their interrelation. The polis, the well- Debate and science lems would ’interiorise’, become part of
functioning society is an invisible body the person’s inner world and would pre-
according to this metaphor. Livius uses The most valuable heritage of the ancient pare him/her for further debates within
the very same metaphor in the allegory democratic reasoning is the conviction the community. The knowledge gained
attributed to Agrippa (Livius). Saint that the opposing ideas when confronted this way might be called common literacy,
Paul also uses this image when he de- within a regular framework do not dis- and this is the main purpose of ’educating
scribes the Church as the invisible body tance the debating parties but bring them the fine citizens’ – or public education as
of Christ (Saint Paul). Christianity, how- closer to each other. Equality and equity, it is nowadays most commonly referred to.
ever, has enriched the metaphor with new which are the basis for every democratic
elements. According to Saint Paul, in or- conception, mean the equal equity of the People of the modern age live in an ever-
der to sustain the unity of the body, it is people and not their reasons. The person changing environment and the condition
not the weak parts that have to serve the might be heated by emotions, passionate of survival is that the new generation
stronger parts but the other way round. even, but his arguments could be separat- should learn, want to learn, adjust and
Power comes from above (transcendent), ed from him. The arguments are collided change, and so the school is to support
hierarchy is not a possibility for tyranny on the battlefield of thoughts, in a chivalric the pupils’ intention to create something
but a means to serve. Harmony could be fight where the rules are respected by both new. Innovation in school is unfolding in
achieved through solidarity and empathy, parties. As Árpád Szabó has shown it, in a complex human structural network. The
and not through consideration of interest. the background of logic, Greek mathemat- analogy of the polis of Aristotle and the in-
The unity of the body is guaranteed by the ics and, consequently, contemporary natu- visible body of Saint Paul in this environ-
soul, which makes it alive and personal. ral sciences there is the philosophy of Elea, ment would be the pupil-teacher commu-
Thus, the right decisions are personal and which states that a thought should be mea- nity. The prerequisites for the pedagogical
organic, serving the sustainability of life. sured by another thought and an argument work of the teacher are: credibility, accep-
Comenius Journal
September 2018 9Perspectives: Democracy in Education
tance and understanding (Rogers, 1994). be discussed but from the resonance of the of ethology. One of the works is an imagi-
Innovation as a working mechanism could pupil’s cognitive schema with that of the nary report, the other is a short story and
reach its purpose if it influences the work philosopher’s thus creating agreement or the third one is a cartoon. Empathy and wit,
of the whole system. The atmosphere of or- disagreement. The real tension is created imagination and critical skills make these
ganizations where innovation is successful when the standpoint is changed. If the oth- writings an exciting and entertaining read.
exhibits similarities to those where creativ- er party applies different premises (applies
ity is supported. Some conditions that in- a different model based on a different par-
fluence such an atmosphere are: challenge, adigm) then one cannot be proven wrong
freedom, support of new ideas, trust, open- while the other be proven right. „Who is
mindedness, dynamism, sense of humour, right after all? And if anyone of you is right,
debate, taking risks and conflicts, sufficient what has it to do with me?” – such ques-
timeframe. My experience as a college tions raise the pupil seeking a straight an-
teacher is that the learning environment swer from the standpoints of both parties
of the teacher apprentices is aided best by and force him or her to choose a position.
an innovative, creativity-supporting atmo- The criticism of the pupil could be super-
sphere. In such an atmosphere there can ficial, witty, sympathetic but might as well
be mutual trust, students are open to each be humorous, playful but with an authentic
other, accepting, committed to the mutu- tension nonetheless. The one playing a role
ally determined aims, and most of them does not re-construct but constructs; dur-
experience self-determination and the ing the dialogue he /she may play the role of
support of their initiatives. It is remark- a person whose knowledge was far beyond
able, however, that conflicts that may come his/hers. For those who realise this, it nei-
from emotional and/or personal tension in- ther means despise nor giving up him/her-
fluences the atmosphere in a negative way. self. Rather, it mirrors freedom that comes
from the comparison of different scientists’
History of science role-play: empathy different and comprehended standpoints
and critique (which are derived from facts and conclu-
sions comprehended by both the pupil and
Our team has been improving a histori- the scientist). This process has been de-
cal approach in teaching natural sciences, scribed by Paolo Freie by codification (cre-
which is connected in a variety of ways to ating images) and decodification (focus-
the democratic traditions of literacy. The ing), and compares it to the moment when
curriculum and the secondary literature the photographer sharpens certain details
are based on paradigms (according to of a photograph (the coded message) that
Kuhn) and research programs (according are important for the whole image and thus
to Lakatos) that allow the various stand- adds meaning to the picture (Freie,1968).
points to confront and thus indeed differ In the fields of natural sciences there are
from the still prevailing approach in teach- many issues that could be apprehended by
ing natural sciences. On the other hand a historical-drama approach. Concerning
they are bound to the results of the cog- the structure of the material Parmenides,
nitive sciences and the constructive peda- Demokritos, Aristotle, Dalton, Rutherford
gogical trends that root in these results. and Heisenberg may have a debate, on the
Our approach that includes a wide range behaviour of the animals Fabre, Lorenz,
of aspects may seem contradictory to the Pavlov and Skinner might do the same
logic of teenagers, which seeks unequivo- as well as Lamarck, Cuvier, Darwin and
cal results and may deny irretrievably the Chardin on evolution. Due to their knowl-
facts that they deem false or faulty. How- edge they are the aristocracy of intellect,
ever, our experience is that this wide range the pupils (and their teachers) through
of aspects in the history of sciences could their dialogues could create a community,
generate a fruitful tension in the pupils. common literacy and in this spiritual-or-
The teacher creates a dramatic situation ganic sense they are democtratic as well.
where the playground is set wide open
by the identification or opposition to the In the followings, three 16-year-old pupils’
characters. The pupil chooses a role; ei- works can be found that they did as a home
ther identifies with the philosopher or op- assignment in ethology (originally written
poses him. The thoughts that concern the in Hungarian, the pupils edited and trans-
pupil may lead to emotions. This concern lated their own works). The ethological
does not necessarily come from the ’ordi- trends were discussed through presenta-
nary’ or ’practical’ nature of the issue to tions and a documentary about the history
10 Comenius Journal
September 2018Perspectives: Democracy in Education
Learning to Escape ’Did you see that?’ asked Köhler with Good morning ladies and
a wide smile on his face. ’It was obvi- gentlemen... (detail)
The shadows of evening were falling. ously an effective behaviour with a pur-
The normally crowded streets were turn- pose, a conscious problem-solving.’
ing empty, the shops were already closed. Riporter: Good morning ladies and gentle-
The behaviourists were speechless. They men. Greeting to all our viewers and welcome
The sound of a tiny mouse broke the silence looked at Köhler amazed then watched to our audience here, in the studio. Let me greet
of a deserted street in the dingy section of the mouse disappearing in the shadows. amongst us Mr. Burrhus Frederic Skinner, the
town. On the other side of the street, where the leading personality of the behaviourist learn-
mouse was heading, there was a deep pothole by Veronika Pusztai ing theory, Mr. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Russian
which was caused during roadworks that day. physiologist who won Nobel prize for his study
about the conditional reflex and, last but not
’Poor mouse.’ said Watson, and sighed as he least, Mr. Konrad Lorenz, Austrian scientist
saw the mouse running towards the hole. who won Nobel prize for his study in imprinting.
’It is going to fall into it.’ Pavlov, Skinner, Lorenz: Good morning.
’What makes you think that?’ asked Thorn- Riporter: First and foremost, I would
dike. like to know how you see the basic differ-
ence between your learning methodologies?
’This mouse has been using this route to reach
the dustbins of the nearby restaurant and look Lorenz: I would rather not compare imprint-
for food for months. It is impossible that it will ing with the other two learning processes. The
change this ingrained habit to avoid the hole.’ only similarity is that all the three are about
learning.The difference between the behaviour-
He was right: the mouse fell in the hole and ist theory and conditional reflex is that in the
sat confused among some stones, sticks and first case the animal is awarded before, in the
an empty carton of milk. After a few mo- second case, after the action. In the behaviour-
ments it started running round and round, ist method, the animal doesn’t learn the condi-
desperatly trying to find the way out. Then tions, just the way what leads to the reward.
it tried to reach the edge of the hole, but it
was too high, so it started running again. Pavlov: Yes, my finding shows that one learns
by associated stimulus, although it would be
’Why doesn’t it realise that it is no use?’ asked exaggeration to say that learning is exclusively
Watson. association. One who reads an instructive
story in a book becomes not unconditionally
’These are random actions. It is going to able to apply the edification form it. The read-
repeat the rewarded one.’ ers tend to remember the circumstances simi-
lar to those they met before in reality and by
’I completely agree with you.’ said Skinner, this association they can recall the edification.
who joined the conversation as he heard what
Thorndike and Watson were talking about. Skinner: I completely agree with you Ivan.
It would be difficult although not impossible
’This behaviour can be observed in ani- to use this example for the justification of the
mals locked in puzzle boxes or Skinner behaviourist theory. Neither I have stated
boxes. They receive food as a positive re- that one can work exclusively with this the-
inforcement when they manage to adopt ory. Mixing of the two methods is possible.
the right behaviour such as pressing the A good example for linking the two might be
pedal or escaping the box.’ he explained. Horn Rike’s problem box from which the cat
had to find the way out. In order to do that,
’It is called trial-and-error learning or op- first he had had to solve the problem hidden
erant conditioning.’added Thorndike. of the box. The process of problem solution
stimulated the animal and after this stimu-
’Are you sure gentlemen?’ asked Köhler lus he got the prize which was confirmation.
interrupting Thorndike. ’Watch.’
Riporter: What do you think, what is
At that moment the mouse stopped. It ran to the most useful way of learning? (….)
the empty carton of milk, pushed it to the wall
of the hole, climbed on it and easily escaped. by Szesztay Ákos
Comenius Journal
September 2018 11Perspectives: Democracy in Education
by Medgyasszay Bori
(„Medve” means „Bear”, Medve cheese and candy are traditional Hungarian foods).
MÁRIA BOTH
L Á S Z L Ó C S O R B A F.
12 Comenius Journal
September 2018Perspectives: Democracy in Education
References
Aristotle.Ethica Nikomacheia 1160.
Cartledge, P. (2016). Ancient Greeks would not recognise our ‘democracy’ – they’d see an ‘oligarchy’
http://theconversation.com/ancient-greeks-would-not-recognise-our-democracy-theyd-see-an-oligarchy-60277
Freire P. (1968,1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed
http://warbithy.com/book/paulo-freire-pedagogy-of-the-oppressed-pdf
http://www.freire.org/paulo-freire/concepts-used-by-paulo-freire
King, A. W. - Pimm, S. L. (1983).Complexity, Diversity, and Stability: A Reconciliation of Theoretical and Empirical Results. The American Naturalist 83.August
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2461232?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Lingley, A. (2016). Democratic Foundations for Spiritually Responsive Pedagogy. Democracy and Educaton Vol. 24.
https://democracyeducationjournal.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1192&context=home
Livius: Ab urbe condita II.32. 9-12.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0151%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D32
Rogers, C.R.-Freiberg, H.J. (1994). Freedom to learn. New York, Merill
Saint Paul.I.Kor. 12,12-26.
Szabó Á.(1978). The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics Springer, Heidelberg
Comenius Journal
September 2018 13Perspectives: Democracy in Education
Teaching democracy is experiencing
democracy – profession didactics in
social sciences
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article montre la compréhension de l’enseignement des sciences sociales à University College
Syd (UC SYD) à Haderslev / Danemark. Il montre les relations entre la loi danoise, les attentes
sur la démocratie dans l’éducation et les nouvelles statistiques d’une part, et la formation pratique
des enseignants d’autre part. Ici, un accent clair est mis sur l’expérience de la démocratie en
dehors de la salle de classe au lieu de «seulement» lire et parler de la démocratie en classe.
Nadine Malich-Bohlig C’est pour atteindre ce but que des enseignants sont éduqués dans la démocratie active, suivant
le concept d’école ouverte pour ensuite éduquer leurs élèves dans la démocratie active et l’école
Adjunkt/Assistant Professor ouverte eux-mêmes
University College Syd
Haderslev/Denmark,
The Danish law, Folkeskolens Formålspar- on society and its development. Students
agraf, says among other that the Dan- shall acquire competencies for active par-
ish folkeskole (grades 1-10) “is to prepare ticipation in a democratic society. PCS.
the students to be able to participate, 2. Students shall acquire the prerequi-
demonstrate mutual responsibility and sites for developing critical thinking and
understand their rights and duties in a a value base so that they can participate
free and democratic society. The daily qualified and committed in society. Stu-
activities of the school must, therefore, dents should gain an understanding of
be conducted in a spirit of intellectual how people are both influenced by and can
freedom, equality and democracy.”1 In influence society, and they should be able
the curriculum for the Danish subject to understand everyday life from a social
of citizenship education, samfundsfagn 2, perspective. PCS. 3. Students shall relate
the overall aim is formulated as follows: to democratic values and rules of play
for their own participation in society.”3
“Students shall acquire knowledge and
skills in the subject citizenship education The International Civic and Citizenship
so that they can take a reflected position Education Study (ICCS) from 2016 com-
1 http://www.eng.uvm.dk/primary-and-lower-secondary-education/the-folkeskole/the-aims-of-the-folkeskole (2018/6/21).
2 Here, an explanation how the words citizenship education and social sciences are understood and used in this article is
necessary: I understand citizenship education as the subject taught in school, the dansih word is samfundsfag. Here, pupils get
educated to become citizens in the danish society. The subject taught at UC SYD, also called samfundsfag, is more like social
sciences, because it includes theory, didactics and content.
14 Comenius Journal
September 2018Perspectives: Democracy in Education
pares the knowledge about and compe- that they will send their students out to school with no more than two lessons a
tences in being a citizen from students make some interviews during their citi- week and that it is a very pressed curricu-
from 24 countries all over the world.4 zenship education classes is big. Since lum they have to follow where it is hard
It shows that danish students in 8th the latest reform of the Danish folkeskole to find time to get out of the classroom.
grade have the best knowledge about in 2014, teaching together with “ex- The objection here is again that once tried
politics, democracy and society, but perts” or outside the classroom, called by themselves, teachers will learn how to
they are not using their knowledge be- open school/den åbne skole, is even part plan and complete both a short or longer
cause they are not participating actively.5 of the ministry’s aims for the school: course and will be convinced by the high
output of activities outside the classroom.
The question to be answered in this arti- “Schools shall open up to the surround-
cle is thus: How can teacher education in ing community. The school shall do this Some concrete and important ex-
social sciences educate students in a way by working with local organizations such amples of teaching with the open
that they can teach students in samfundsfag as sports associations [etc., ...]. The coop- school concept in the subject of so-
(citizenship education) and activate them eration shall contribute to: that the stu- cial sciences from Haderslev are:
to participate in the democratic society? dents learn more [and] that the students
get a better knowledge of society [...].”6 • A visit at the local town hall and a conver-
First of all, it is important to remember sation with the mayor to experience local
that both social sciences and citizenship When using the open school concept, it is politics, democracy and possibilities of tak-
education operate with four views on done in the good tradition of thinkers like ing part in democracy as a citizen(politics),
the subject: (1) it can be understood as Rousseau, Dewey, Freinet and Dysthe
conversation and the students’ life world who all agree in the importance of expe- • a visit of the Danish company Bestseller’s
like discussions and debates, (2) it can be riencing democracy and society to learn warehouse to experience how an inter-
understood as methods, like e.g. problem- about democracy and society and the own national working company works and to
based research or interviews, (3) it can be role as a citizen in a democratic society. understand its limits and possibilities and
understood as content such as e.g. politi- the role of an aware consumer (economy),
cal elections, the EU, Denmarks welfare And the students at school are grateful
system, and it (4) can be understood as a for these classes, too. Here, they can see • a visit of a local drop-in center for
science discipline with its theory and re- that being a citizen does not only mean drug misusers or homeless people to
search in politics/ polity/ policy, economy to participate in elections and that citi- experience and understand their chal-
and sociology (Christensen, 47). When zenship education not only is a subject lenges and to reflect on the own life
teaching, all four views should be included. where knowledge about the representa- in society as a citizen (sociology),
tive democracy is asked for. Neither is
Personal experience and evaluation with it a subject where you only read about • a visit of the nearby archives to un-
students in social sciences at UC SYD and discuss in class what is going on derstand and do some research on long
show that students both love and learn a “outside”. Both social sciences at the political processes and discovering de-
lot in active classes - and this especially teacher education and citizenship edu- cisions (politics, economy, sociology),
outside the classroom. When they have cation at school are “hands on” subjects
visited e.g. a drop-in center for drug where you can only learn about democ- • and many more...
misusers and got in contact with them, racy when experiencing democracy, when
they dare to do the same in their follow- using the students’ life world (view 1). There are, indeed, some important things
ing practical period with their students. to take into consideration when teaching
When they had interviewed a local poli- I can hear teachers say now that citizen- teacher students with the open school
tician during their module, the chance ship education is only a small subject in concept. First of all, an open school
3 https://www.emu.dk/modul/samfundsfag-m%C3%A5l-l%C3%A6seplan-og-vejledning, translated by the author (2018/6/21)
4 https://iccs.iea.nl/home.html (2018/6/21).
5 https://www.emu.dk/modul/iccs-unders%C3%B8gelsen-2016 (2018/6/21).
6 https://www.uvm.dk/folkeskolen/laering-og-laeringsmiljoe/den-aabne-skole, translated by the author (2018/07/02)
Comenius Journal
September 2018 15Vous pouvez aussi lire
